Demi-Gods & Semi-Devils

Demi-Gods & Semi-Devils

Contents

Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils (simplified: 天龙八部, traditional: 天龙八部, pinyin: Tiān Lóng Bā Bù) is a wuxia novel by Jin Yong. It was first serialised concurrently from 3 September 1963 to 27 May 1966 in the Hong Kong newspaper Ming Pao1 and Singapore’s Nanyang Siang Pau.2

After its initial run in the newspapers, Jin Yong made revisions to and published it as the Second Edition in October 1978. He made a second round of changes spanning six major edits before releasing it as the Third Edition in November 2002.

It is one of Jin Yong’s most complex and intricate works, weaving together multiple storylines that explore themes of identity, loyalty, and the complex relationships between different ethnic groups in medieval China.

The novel is particularly notable for its sophisticated narrative structure and philosophical depth, examining human nature through the lens of Buddhist cosmology.

Spoiler alert Wuxia Wiki articles aim to provide encyclopaedic information and will inevitably contain spoilers. Jump to the translation if you prefer to avoid spoilers.

Title translation

The Chinese title is literally “Eight Legions of Deva and Nāga” and it refers to the eight races of supernatural beings in Buddhist cosmology: Devas;3 second, Nāgas;4 third, Yaksha;5 fourth, Gandharvas;6 fifth, Asuras;7 sixth, Garudas;8 seventh, Kinnaras;9 eighth, Mahoragas.10

In Buddhism, these demi-gods and semi-devils, collectively known as the Eight Legions or Aṣṭasenā,11 occupy a position above mortals but remain bound by their own desires to Samsāra, the repeating cycle of rebirth one could only escape through enlightenment. This concept becomes central to the novel’s themes and character development.

The popular translation of the title Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils is a collective reference to these eight races, though it loses some of the Buddhist specificity of the original Chinese. The Eight Legions of Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils or the Eight Legions would be a more accurate translation while avoiding diving too deep into the Buddhist mythology aspects.

In the third edition of the novel,Jin Yong details this in a special preface: Title Explanation.

Eight races mapped

Jin Yong originally intended to model each major character after one of these races, but as the story developed, its complexity made such direct mapping impossible. These mythological mappings provide a deeper layer of meaning to character relationships and conflicts.

By connecting individual character arcs to universal Buddhist themes, they help structure the novel’s exploration of transformation and enlightenment. They also demonstrate how characters can embody multiple aspects of these divine beings, reflecting human complexity.

  • Deva — Qiao Feng/Xiao Feng, representing heavenly might and leadership
  • Nāga — Duan Yu and the Duan Clan, reflecting their royal status
  • Yaksha — Xuzhu and the Four Evils, representing guardianship and protection
  • Gandharva — Azhu and Mu Wanqing, celestial musicians and entertainers
  • Asura — Murong Fu and Wang Yuyan, pride, ambition, and eternal conflict. Asuras wage constant war against the Devas for control of heaven, reflecting Murong Fu’s rivalry with Xiao Feng.
  • Garuda — Jiumozhi and Xuzhu, showing transformation and power
  • Kinnara — Azi
  • Mahoraga — You Tanzhi

The notable character without direct mapping is Zhong Ling.

Deva

In Buddhist mythology, Devas are godlike beings who inhabit the heavenly realms. They possess great power and virtue but can still be subject to pride and attachment. Their primary antagonists are the Asuras, with whom they engage in eternal conflict.

Xiao Feng/Qiao Feng: Embodies the Deva’s qualities of leadership, martial prowess, and moral authority. His position as the leader of the Beggars’ Guild and later as a noble of the Liao kingdom reflects the Deva’s elevated status. His conflict with Murong Fu mirrors the traditional Deva-Asura rivalry.

Nāga

Nāgas are divine dragon-kings in Buddhist mythology, often serving as guardians of treasures and rulers of their own realms. They are associated with water, wisdom, and royal power.

Duan Yu: As the prince of Dali Kingdom, he represents the Nāga’s royal nature. His character represents their qualities of wisdom and nobility.

The Duan Clan: Collectively embody the Nāga’s association with righteous rulership and Buddhist principles, as shown in their governance of the Buddhist kingdom of Dali.

Asura

Asuras are powerful beings driven by pride, envy, and ambition. In Buddhist mythology, they are former devas who fell from grace due to their pride and are locked in eternal conflict with the devas for control of heaven.

Murong Fu: Perfectly embodies the Asura’s traits of pride, ambition, and martial prowess. His obsession with restoring the fallen Yan kingdom and rivalry with Xiao Feng mirror the Asura’s eternal struggle against the Devas.

Wang Yuyan: Represents the beauty that Asuras possess, as well as their connection to desire and attachment.

Yaksha

In Buddhist mythology, Yakshas are powerful nature spirits who serve as guardians of natural treasures and sacred places. They are complex beings who can be either benevolent protectors or dangerous forces when angered.

  • Xuzhu: Represents the protective, dharma-guarding aspect of Yakshas through his role as a Shaolin monk. His journey from simple monk to leader of multiple sects mirrors the Yaksha’s role as a protector of sacred knowledge.

  • The Four Evils: Embody the fierce and potentially destructive nature of Yakshas. Like Yakshas who can become dangerous when provoked, they represent formidable powers that exist outside conventional moral boundaries.

Gandharva

Gandharvas are celestial musicians in Buddhist cosmology, known for their artistic talents and connection to divine truth. They are often associated with romance and are renowned for their extraordinary beauty.

  • Azhu: Directly embodies the Gandharva’s artistic nature through her role as a performer at the Relaxed Tavern. Her tragic romance with Xiao Feng reflects the Gandharvas’ association with love stories.

  • Mu Wanqing: Represents the Gandharvas’ aspects of beauty and romantic destiny. Her complex relationship with Duan Yu mirrors the Gandharvas’ involvement in tales of fated love.

Garuda

Garudas are divine eagle-like beings in Buddhist mythology, known for their tremendous power and ability to transform. They are associated with wisdom and enlightenment.

  • Jiumozhi: Embodies the Garuda’s aspects of wisdom and spiritual power, though his position as an enlightened figure comes through a different path.

  • Xuzhu: His transformation from an ordinary monk to a powerful spiritual leader reflects the Garuda’s themes of transformation and enlightenment.

Kinnara

Kinnaras are celestial beings associated with music, dance, and perfect devotion. In Buddhist mythology, they are often depicted in pairs and are legendary for their faithfulness in love.

  • Azi: Exemplifies the Kinnara’s capacity for absolute devotion through her unwavering love for Xiao Feng. Her tragic fate mirrors the often-sorrowful nature of Kinnara love stories, while her loyalty even in the face of rejection reflects their legendary faithfulness.

Mahoraga

Mahoragas are serpentine beings who represent the path of transformation through humility. In Buddhist mythology, they symbolize the journey from pride to wisdom through humbling experiences.

  • You Tanzhi: His character arc perfectly embodies the Mahoraga’s theme of transformation through humility. Beginning as an arrogant young master, he learns wisdom and humility through his defeats and hardships, mirroring the Mahoraga’s journey from pride to enlightenment.

Significance in the novel

These mythological mappings serve several purposes in the novel:

  1. They provide a deeper layer of meaning to character relationships and conflicts
  2. They connect individual character arcs to universal Buddhist themes
  3. They help structure the novel’s exploration of transformation and enlightenment
  4. They demonstrate how characters can embody multiple aspects of these divine beings, reflecting human complexity

Jin Yong’s use of these mythological beings goes beyond simple one-to-one correspondence, creating a rich tapestry where characters can represent different aspects of these divine beings at different points in their development. This complexity adds depth to the novel’s themes of personal growth, spiritual development, and the interconnected nature of all beings.

Plot

Background

The story is set during the Northern Song dynasty,12 specifically during the reign of Emperor Zhezong around 1094 CE. The narrative unfolds against a backdrop of political tension between several kingdoms and ethnic groups: the Han Chinese-dominated13 Song Dynasty, the Khitan-led14 Liao Empire,15 the Dali Kingdom16 Western Xia,17 and Tibetan Empire.18

This period was marked by complex political relationships and cultural exchanges between these various powers, providing a rich historical context for the novel’s exploration of ethnic identity and loyalty.

Overview

The novel follows three protagonists whose stories initially develop separately but gradually interweave:

Duan Yu A young prince of the Dali Kingdom who disdains violence and refuses to learn martial arts. Through a series of coincidences, he acquires powerful skills including the Beiming Power and the Six Meridians Divine Jian. His romantic entanglements with several women become complicated when he believes them to be his half-sisters due to his father’s past affairs. Eventually, he discovers he is not his father’s biological son, freeing him to pursue these relationships.

Qiao Feng The charismatic chief of the Beggars’ Guild whose life is upended when he is revealed to be an ethnic Khitan and accused of murder. Forced to leave the Han Chinese jianghu, he embarks on a journey to uncover his true identity and clear his name. His tragic romance with Azhu and complex relationship with both Song and Liao empires form a central thread of the narrative. His story culminates in a noble sacrifice to prevent war between Song and Liao.

Xuzhu A humble Shaolin monk who, through various circumstances, inherits leadership positions he never sought, including becoming the ruler of Lingjiu Palace and the prince consort of Western Xia. His journey forces him to reconcile his Buddhist beliefs with worldly responsibilities, eventually leading him to choose love over monastic life.

Summary

The story begins when Duan Yu, son of Prince Duan Zhengchun of the Dali Kingdom, flees to Mount Wuliang to avoid learning martial arts. Through various encounters, he accidentally acquires the Beiming Power and falls in love with Zhong Ling and Mu Wanqing, only to discover they may be his half-sisters due to his father’s past affairs. Returning to Dali, he witnesses the confrontation between Jiumozhi and the monks of Tianlong Temple over the Six Meridians Divine Jian manual. To save his uncle, Duan Yu defeats Jiumozhi using the powerful technique, but is subsequently captured and taken to the Murong Clan estate in Gusu.

With help from Azhu and Abi, Duan Yu escapes and meets Wang Yuyan, with whom he falls deeply in love. He also becomes sworn brothers with Qiao Feng, chief of the Beggars’ Guild, at the Songhe Restaurant in Wuxi.

Qiao Feng’s world collapses when he is revealed to be of Khitan ethnicity and accused of murdering his deputy Ma Dayuan. Seeking answers about his origins, he travels to Mount Shaoshi to find his adoptive father Qiao Sanhuai and master Xuanku, only to discover they have been killed—with witnesses claiming he was the murderer. Devastated and unable to clear his name, he battles the assembled heroes at Juxian Manor to save Azhu’s life. Later, at Yanmen Pass, he has an epiphany about his identity and no longer feels ashamed of being Khitan after witnessing Song soldiers massacre Khitan civilians.

Together with Azhu, Qiao Feng searches for his true enemy across thousands of miles. Their relationship deepens into love, but tragedy strikes when Qiao Feng is deceived by Ma Dayuan’s widow and accidentally kills Azhu, who had disguised herself as Duan Zhengchun. Devastated by remorse, he promises to care for Azhu’s sister Azi. He later rescues Liao Emperor Yelü Hongji from Jin forces and becomes sworn brothers with him, earning the title of Southern Chancellor.

Meanwhile, Xuzhu, a simple Shaolin monk, accidentally solves the “Zhenlong” chess puzzle set by Wuyazi, leader of the Xiaoyao Order, and inherits the position. Tianshan Child Granny takes him to the Western Xia palace, where he masters the Eternal Immortality Power. After Tianshan Child Granny and Li Qiushui perish together, Xuzhu becomes master of Lingjiu Palace and befriends Duan Yu.

The three protagonists’ paths converge at Shaolin Monastery, where various martial arts groups gather, including representatives from the Beggars’ Guild, Xingxiu Order, Murong Clan, and others. The truth about past events is finally revealed, including Xuzhu’s parentage. At the Western Xia marriage competition, Murong Fu rejects Wang Yuyan’s love to pursue the throne, while Duan Yu finally wins her heart. Jiumozhi, having gone mad from practicing Shaolin techniques, is saved when Duan Yu absorbs his neili, leading to his enlightenment as a monk. Xuzhu correctly answers the princess’s riddle and discovers she is Meng Gu, the woman who broke his monastic vows, and they marry.

On his way back to Dali, Duan Yu becomes trapped in a scheme by Li Qingluo to capture Duan Zhengchun. Duan Yanqing threatens to kill Duan Yu unless Duan Zhengchun abdicates in his favor. After a fierce battle, Duan Zhengchun and his wife Dao Baifeng commit suicide together, Duan Yanqing departs, and Duan Yu returns to inherit the Dali throne.

When the Liao Empire attacks the Song Dynasty, Xiao Feng (Qiao Feng) cannot bear to see the suffering of war and coerces the Liao Emperor to promise never to attack Song during his lifetime. Feeling he has betrayed his people, he takes his own life. Azi, heartbroken, returns her eyes to You Tanzhi and leaps to her death, followed by You Tanzhi calling her name.

After Xiao Feng’s death, Duan Yu bids farewell to Xuzhu and his wife, returning to Dali with Wang Yuyan, where they encounter the now-mad Murong Fu, still obsessed with becoming emperor. In the revised edition, Duan Yu ultimately overcomes his inner demons in the Wuliang Jade Cave and marries Mu Wanqing, Zhong Ling, and Xiaolei, while Wang Yuyan leaves him to return to Murong Fu’s side, caring for the deranged prince alongside Abi.

Themes

Identity and belonging

The novel explores questions of personal and ethnic identity, particularly through Qiao Feng’s struggle with his Khitan heritage in a Han Chinese-dominated society. This theme reflects broader questions about the nature of belonging and the conflict between inherited and chosen identities.

Fate and circumstance

A recurring theme is the role of fate and circumstance in shaping lives. All three protagonists find themselves in situations they neither sought nor desired, highlighting the Buddhist concept of karma and the interconnectedness of all things.

Love and obligation

The novel examines various forms of love—romantic, familial, and platonic—and how they conflict with social obligations and expectations. Each protagonist faces choices between personal happiness and duty.

Religious philosophy

Buddhist concepts permeate the novel, particularly the idea that desire leads to suffering. The eight races of demi-gods and semi-devils serve as a metaphor for the human condition, trapped in cycles of desire and suffering.

Cultural integration

Through its diverse cast of characters from different ethnic backgrounds, the novel explores themes of cultural integration and conflict, reflecting the complex relationships between various ethnic groups in medieval China.

Tragedy and redemption

The novel’s Buddhist framework emphasises the tragic nature of human existence while offering the possibility of redemption through enlightenment and self-sacrifice. The phrase “No one is without grievance, all love is sinful” encapsulates this theme.

Cast

Main article: Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils characters

Protagonists

  • Duan Yu (段譽 — Duàn Yù) — Prince of Dali Kingdom who abhors violence
  • Qiao Feng (萧峰 — Xiāo Fēng) — Chief of the Beggars’ Guild who discovers his Khitan heritage
  • Xuzhu (虛竹 — Xūzhú) — Shaolin monk who inherits multiple leadership positions

Notable characters

  • Duan Zhengchun (段正淳 — Duàn Zhèngchún) — Duan Yu’s father and a notorious womanizer
  • Wang Yuyan (王語嫣 — Wáng Yǔyān) — A beautiful young woman whom Duan Yu pursues
  • Azhu (阿朱 — Ā Zhū) — Qiao Feng’s love interest
  • Azi (阿紫 — Ā Zǐ) — Azhu’s younger sister who develops feelings for Qiao Feng
  • Murong Fu (慕容复 — Mùróng Fù) — The heir of the Murong family seeking to restore the Yan kingdom
  • Mu Wanqing (木婉清 — Mù Wǎnqīng) — A skilled martial artist who becomes romantically involved with Duan Yu
  • Zhong Ling (鐘灵 — Zhōng Líng) — A young, spirited girl who falls in love with Duan Yu
  • The Four Evils (四大恶人 — Sìdà Èrén) — Four notorious figures in the jianghu who play crucial roles
  • Duan Yanqing (段延慶 — Duàn Yànqìng) the Overflowing Evil — First of the Four Evils
  • Ye Erniang (葉二娘 — Yè èrniáng) the Second Evil — Second of the Four Evils
  • Yue Laosan (岳老三 — Yuè Lǎosān) the Savage Evil — Third of the Four Evils, also known as the Evil of the Southern Seas
  • Yun Zhonghe (云中鶴 — Yún Zhōnghè) the Ultimate Evil — Fourth of the Four Evils

Martial arts abilities

Main article: Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils martial

  • Beiming Power (北冥神功 — Běimíng shéngōng) — Absorbs and transfers others’ qi; signature of the Xiaoyao Order.
  • Six Meridians Divine Jian (六脉神剑 — Liùmài shénjiàn) — Legendary sword energy technique of the Duan Clan, using internal force to form invisible blades.
  • One Yang Finger (一阳指 — Yìyáng zhǐ) — Famous Duan Clan finger technique for healing and attack.
  • Twenty-Eight Palms of Dragon Subduing (降龙二十八/十八掌 — Xiánglóng èrshíbā/shíbā zhǎng) — Qiao Feng’s signature palm technique, famed for its power.
  • Dog-Beating Staff Technique (打狗棒法 — Dǎgǒu bàngfǎ) — Secret staff art of the Beggars’ Guild.
  • Lingbo Steps (凌波微步 — Língbō wēibù) — Unique qinggong footwork for unpredictable movement; mastered by Duan Yu.
  • Dipper Turns, Stars Shift (斗转星移 — Dǒuzhuǎn xīngyí) — Murong Clan’s technique to redirect opponents’ attacks.
  • Mark of Life and Death (生死符 — Shēngsǐ fú) — Xiaoyao Order’s poison-based neili control.
  • Tendon-Transmuting Sutra (昉筋经 — Yìjīnjīng) — Legendary Shaolin internal cultivation manual.
  • Tiny Unseen Power (小无相功 — Xiǎo wúxiàng gōng) — Xiaoyao Order’s versatile internal skill.
  • Tianshan Plum-Plucking Hand (天山折梅手 — Tiānshān zhé méi shǒu) — Lethal hand technique of the Tianshan Child Granny.
  • Sanhe Finger (参合指 — Cānhé zhǐ) — Murong Clan’s advanced finger technique.
  • Frost Silkworm Poison Palms (冰蚕毒掌 — Bīngcán dúzhǎng) — Deadly poison palm skill, used by You Tanzhi.
  • Dragon-Holding Power (擒龙功 — Qínlóng gōng) — Powerful grappling technique, used by Xiao Feng.
  • Taizu Long Fist (太祖长拳 — Tàizǔ chángquán) — Classic martial art, used by Xiao Feng and others.
  • Shattering of the Heavily Spirit (天灵千裂 — Tiānlíng qiānliè) — Bull Subduing Sect’s devastating attack.

Behind the scenes

Jin Yong began writing Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils in 1963, during a period when he was simultaneously managing his newspaper Ming Pao and writing multiple serialized novels. The novel’s complex structure and philosophical themes reflect his growing sophistication as a writer.

During the serialization, novelist Ni Kuang briefly took over writing duties for about a month, contributing approximately 40,000 words while Jin Yong was traveling abroad. This included a scene where Azi was blinded, which was largely removed in subsequent editions, though the basic plot point was retained.

The novel’s Buddhist framework was carefully researched, with Jin Yong drawing on extensive religious and historical sources to create his narrative structure. The work’s philosophical depth and complex characterization marked a new level of maturity in his writing.

Publication history

The novel was first serialized in Hong Kong’s Ming Pao newspaper from September 3, 1963, to May 27, 1966, spanning approximately 1.5 million characters. The novel underwent multiple revisions, with the second edition published in October 1978 and the third edition in November 2002, incorporating six major edits that significantly altered the ending.

Editions

The novel exists in three main editions:

  1. First Edition (1963-1966): The original serialized version published in Ming Pao
  2. Second Edition (1979): Joint Publishing Company (三联版) with significant changes to plot and character development
  3. Third Edition (2002): Guangzhou Publishing House (新修版), the final version with six major edits and a significantly altered ending

Each edition reflects Jin Yong’s evolving artistic vision and his desire to perfect the narrative. The changes between editions include modifications to character motivations, plot developments, and historical details, demonstrating Jin Yong’s commitment to creating the most compelling version of his story.

Adaptations

Film

Television series

Video games

  • 2002 single-player RPG
  • 2007 MMORPG from Changyou and Sohu: Dragon Oath, also known as Tiān Lóng Bā Bù in China
  • 2012 MMORPG from Changyou and Sohu released on 25 October as Tian Long Ba Bu: Shen Bing Hai Yu endorsed by Hu Ge and Cecilia Liu who appeared as Duan Yu and Wang Yuyan respectively

Legacy

Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils represents one of Jin Yong’s most ambitious and philosophically complex works. Its sophisticated treatment of ethnic identity and cultural conflict was groundbreaking for the wuxia genre, while its intricate plot structure and character development set new standards for Chinese popular fiction.

The novel’s influence extends beyond entertainment, contributing to discussions about ethnic relations and identity in Chinese society. Its exploration of Buddhist philosophy and human nature has made it a subject of serious literary study.

The work’s popularity has led to numerous adaptations across various media, helping to introduce wuxia to new generations of audiences. Its themes of identity, loyalty, and the complexity of human relationships continue to resonate with readers today.

Translation

WuxiaSociety has an on-going fan translation of the Third Edition by Jenxi Seow. It comes with footnotes on cultural and historical points, as well as translator notes to help readers better understand the context and appreciation the nuances that stems from Chinese culture and traditions.

Critical reception

The novel has received widespread critical acclaim for its complex narrative structure and philosophical depth. Critics have praised Jin Yong’s ability to weave Buddhist philosophy with martial arts storytelling, creating a compelling narrative that explores themes of identity, loyalty, and the human condition.

The novel’s portrayal of three protagonists with distinct backgrounds and motivations has been particularly well-received, with many critics noting how their individual journeys reflect broader themes of the story. The phrase “无人不冤，有情皆孽” (No one is without grievance, all love is sinful) has become a famous literary quote that encapsulates the novel’s tragic worldview.

Cultural impact

Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils has had a profound impact on Chinese popular culture, influencing not only literature but also film, television, and other media. The novel’s exploration of themes such as ethnic identity, political legitimacy, and the relationship between personal and political loyalties continues to resonate with contemporary audiences.

The novel’s success helped establish Jin Yong as one of the most important figures in modern Chinese literature, and its adaptations have introduced wuxia to international audiences. The story’s themes of identity, loyalty, and the complexity of human relationships have made it particularly relevant in discussions about Chinese history and culture.

In 2004, the novel’s forty-first chapter “Yan Yun Shi Ba Fei Qi, Ben Teng Ru Hu Feng Yan Ju” was selected for inclusion in the People’s Education Press high school Chinese literature textbook, marking the first time a wuxia novel was included in official Chinese educational materials.

See also

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Footnotes

  1. 明報 — Míng Bào. A Hong Kong newspaper that was founded in 1959 See Wikipedia. ↩

  2. 南洋商報 — nányáng shāng bào. A Singapore newspaper that was founded in 1955. See Wikipedia. ↩

  3. Celestial being or god who shares the god-like characteristics of being more powerful, longer-lived See Wikipedia. ↩

  4. Semi-divine, race of half-human, half-serpent beings that reside in the netherworld, and can occasionally take human or part-human form. See Wikipedia. ↩

  5. Broad class of nature spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness. See Wikipedia. ↩

  6. Supernatural beings connected with trees and flowers and fly through the air, are known for their skill as musicians. See Wikipedia. ↩

  7. Power-seeking beings related to the more benevolent Devas. See Wikipedia. ↩

  8. Gigantic golden-winged predatory birds that are enemies of the Nāgas. See Wikipedia. ↩

  9. Part human and part bird, and have a strong association with music and love. See Wikipedia. ↩

  10. Huge primordial subterranean serpents who are cousins to the Nāga, and associated with instrumental music. See Wikipedia. ↩

  11. Also known as Aṣṭasenā or the Eight Legions. See Wikipedia. ↩

  12. 北宋 — Běi Sòng. Period of the Song Dynasty that lasted from 960 to 1127 CE. See Wikipedia. ↩

  13. 汉族 — Hànzú. The largest ethnic group in China and the world. See Wikipedia. ↩

  14. 契丹 — Qìdān. A nomadic people descended from the proto-Mongols through the Xianbei. See Wikipedia. ↩

  15. 遼 — Liáo. A powerful Khitan empire that ruled over northeast China, the Mongolian Plateau, the northern part of the Korean Peninsula, southern parts of Russian Far East, andthe nortern tip of the North China Plain. See Wikipedia. ↩

  16. 大理国 — Dàlǐ Guó. Kingdom in southwest China, modern-day Yunnan, ruled by the Bai people of the Duan Clan from 937 to 1253 CE. See Wikipedia. ↩

  17. 西夏 — Xī Xià. Also known as the Tangut Empire. A powerful kingdom in northwestern China ruled by the Tanguts. See Wikipedia. ↩

  18. 西藏 — Xī Zàng. An empire in southwest China that was ruled by the Tibetan people. See Wikipedia. ↩

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