Wang Dulu 王度庐 | 王度廬

Wang Dulu is the pen name of Wang Baoxiang¹ (王葆祥, Wáng Bǎoxiáng; 13 September 1909–12 February 1977), a Chinese wuxia novelist best known for his tragic romantic wuxia fiction.

Wang Dulu was one of the Northern Five Masters² of wuxia fiction, alongside Huanzhu Louzhu³ (the fantastical-mystical school), Gong Baiyu⁴ (the social satire school), Zheng Zhengyin⁵ (the gang martial arts school), and Zhu Zhenmu⁶ (the mystery-detective school).

His most celebrated works are the Crane-Iron Series (鹤铁系列, Hè-Tiě Xìliè), five interconnected novels chronicling tragic love stories across four generations of martial artists. The fourth novel in the series, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, achieved international recognition when adapted into an Academy Award-winning film by director Ang Lee in 2000.

Wang Dulu’s distinctive contribution to wuxia literature was his fusion of romance and martial arts in a realistic, grounded style that emphasized human emotions, psychological complexity, and tragic outcomes. Unlike his contemporaries who wrote fantastical tales of supernatural powers, Wang focused on believable characters struggling with conflicting loyalties, social constraints, and the fundamental incompatibility between the solitary life of a martial artist and romantic fulfillment.

Early life

Wang Dulu was born on 13 September 1909 (the 29th day of the seventh lunar month) in a poor Bannerman⁷ family in the Houmen⁸ neighborhood of Beijing. His ancestors were ethnic Han Chinese who had been adopted into the Manchu Eight Banners.⁹

His father worked as a low-level clerk in a Qing palace office that managed imperial carriages and sedan chairs, likely the Office of the Imperial Stud.¹⁰ When Wang was only seven years old in 1916, his father died of illness, plunging the family into dire poverty.

The year 1909, when Wang was born, was also significant as the year the Qing court abolished the bannermen stipend system,¹¹ which had provided regular income to Banner families for centuries. This policy change, combined with his father’s death, meant Wang’s family faced extreme financial hardship.

After his father’s death, Wang’s mother and elder sister worked as domestic servants and seamstresses to support the family. From the age of twelve, Wang also began working odd jobs to contribute to the household income. His education was consequently sporadic and self-directed, conducted entirely through his own determined self-study.

This childhood poverty and hardship would profoundly influence Wang’s worldview and creative vision, contributing to the tragic sensibility that permeates all his works.

Career

Early writing

In 1924, Wang graduated from an old-system higher primary school¹² with minimal formal education. He then worked intermittently as a primary school teacher and private tutor while continuing his self-education and beginning to submit articles to newspapers and magazines.

In 1931, Wang was hired by Song Xindeng,¹³ the publisher of the Little Daily (小小日报, Xiǎoxiǎo Rìbào), as an editor. He began publishing detective and mystery novels under his courtesy name “Xiaoyu” (霄羽) and also wrote commentary pieces under the pen name “Liu Jin” (柳今).

In 1934, Wang traveled to Xi’an to seek employment. In 1935, he married Li Danquan¹⁴ (李丹荃, Lǐ Dānquán) in Xi’an. She was born on the second day of the second lunar month in 1916 in Zhouzhi County, Shaanxi Province,¹⁵ and worked as a teacher.

Wang worked successively as a proofreader in the editorial office of the Shaanxi Provincial Education Bureau and as an editor for the Minyi Bao (民意报, Mínyi Bào, “Public Opinion Daily”) newspaper, where Li Danquan also worked as a journalist or editor.

In 1936, Wang and Li returned to Beijing. Unable to find stable employment, Wang supported them by selling his writings. In spring 1937, the couple moved to Qingdao,¹⁶ where they would remain throughout the Second Sino-Japanese War under Japanese occupation.

Wuxia career in Qingdao

On 1 June 1938, Wang published his first wuxia novel, The Wandering Heroes of Rivers and Mountains (河岳游侠传, Héyuè Yóuxiá Zhuàn), serialized in the Qingdao New People’s Daily (青岛新民报, Qīngdǎo Xīnmín Bào). This marked the beginning of his career as a martial arts novelist, though he would continue using the pen name Wang Dulu specifically for his wuxia fiction.

Between 1938 and 1945, Wang wrote prolifically for the Qingdao New People’s Daily, often simultaneously serializing both a wuxia novel and a contemporary romance novel. The contemporary works were published under his courtesy name Xiaoyu, while the wuxia novels appeared under the pen name Wang Dulu.

During this period from 1940 to 1945, Wang also taught at two schools in Qingdao: the private Shenggong Girls’ Middle School and the municipal girls’ middle school. Despite having regular employment, his teaching salary was insufficient, and he relied on his novel writing for additional income.

Life during the Japanese occupation was difficult. Wang and Li struggled financially, at times selling spring festival couplets¹⁷ on the street to make ends meet. Li Danquan participated in discussions about Wang’s work, including his novel Rainbow over the Sea (海上虹霞, Hǎishàng Hóngxiá), and her recollections indicate that readers sometimes imitated scenes from his novels.

Despite these hardships and the constraints of writing under Japanese censorship, this period was Wang’s most productive and creative, during which he developed his distinctive style and wrote his most enduring works.

The Crane-Iron Series

Between 1938 and 1944, Wang wrote his masterpiece: the Crane-Iron Series, five interconnected novels that would define his legacy. These novels chronicle tragic love stories spanning four generations of martial artists in the jianghu.¹⁸

The five novels were published in the following order:

1. Precious Sword, Golden Hairpin (宝剑金钗, Bǎojiàn Jīnchāi) – serialized November 1938 to April 1939 in Qingdao New People’s Daily under the title The Chronicle of the Precious Sword and Golden Hairpin (宝剑金钗记); collected edition published September 1939 by Qingdao Daily Press
2. Sword Force, Pearl Shine (剑气珠光, Jiànqì Zhūguāng) – serialized July 1939 to April 1940 under the title The Record of Sword Force and Pearl Shine (剑气珠光录); collected edition published April 1941
3. Crane Startles Kunlun (鹤惊昆仑, Hè Jīng Kūnlún) – written third but set chronologically first; serialized April 1940 to March 1941 under the title The Chronicle of the Dancing Crane and Singing Luan (舞鹤鸣鸾记)
4. Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (卧虎藏龙, Wò Hǔ Cáng Lóng) – serialized March 1941 to March 1942 under the title The Legend of the Crouching Tiger and Hidden Dragon (卧虎藏龙传); collected edition published March-May 1948 by Lili Press in five volumes
5. Iron Knight, Silver Vase (铁骑银瓶, Tiěqí Yínpíng) – serialized March 1942 to approximately 1944 under the title The Legend of the Iron Knight and Silver Vase (铁骑银瓶传); collected edition published May-July 1948 by Lili Press

The series was immensely popular, with influence spreading beyond the Japanese-occupied territories into Nationalist-controlled areas. At one point, an imposter claiming to be “Professor Wang Dulu” held public lectures in Chongqing¹⁹ about the “Strange People of Jiuhua Mountain” (九华奇人传), referencing the novels’ backstory. This incident demonstrates how Wang’s cultural influence transcended the Japanese military censorship apparatus.

Post-war writing

After Japan’s surrender in August 1945, Wang continued writing. He briefly serialized The Chronicle of the Golden Blade and Jade Pendant (金刀玉佩记, Jīndāo Yùpèi Jì) in the Minzhi Daily (民治报, Mínzhì Bào) during summer 1945, though it remained unfinished.

Wang also worked part-time at the Qingdao Merchant and Vendor Association (青岛市摊商公会) but continued to focus primarily on writing. Between 1945 and 1949, he wrote approximately fifteen additional works, mostly medium-length wuxia and contemporary novels, which were published directly by Lili Publishing House²⁰ in Shanghai without prior serialization.

Notable works from this period include Yongzheng and Nian Gengyao (雍正与年羹尧, Yōngzhèng yǔ Nián Gēngyáo, later retitled New Blood Drop [新血滴子]), Wind and Rain Twin Dragon Swords (风雨双龙剑, Fēngyǔ Shuānglóng Jiàn), Embroidered Belt Silver Dart (绣带银镖, Xiùdài Yínbiāo), The Flying Precious Sword (宝刀飞, Bǎodāo Fēi), and others.

In 1949, Lili Publishing House in Shanghai was preparing to republish Wang’s complete works, but the project was abandoned when the Communist forces took Shanghai during the Chinese Civil War.

Communist period

In 1949, Wang and Li Danquan moved to Dalian,²¹ where Wang worked as an editor at the Education Bureau of the Luda Administrative Office and as a Chinese language teacher at Luda Normal College.

In autumn 1953, the couple relocated to Shenyang,²² where Wang became a Chinese language teacher at Northeast Experimental School (东北实验学校, later renamed Liaoning Experimental Middle School).

In 1956, Wang joined the China Democratic League²³ and served as a committee member of the Shenyang Municipal Committee of the organization. He was subsequently elected as a Shenyang City People’s Representative and a member of the Huanggu District Political Consultative Conference.

Under the Communist government’s cultural policies, wuxia and romance fiction were classified as feudal literature and banned. Wang was labeled an “old literati” (旧文人) and forbidden from writing new novels. Despite his earlier popularity and literary achievements, “Wang Dulu” effectively disappeared from the literary world.

During the Cultural Revolution²⁴ beginning in summer 1966, Wang was subjected to political persecution and criticism.

In spring 1970, Wang and Li were sent down to the countryside as part of the rustication program,²⁵ relocated to Daweizi Brigade in Quantou Commune, Changtu County,²⁶ and later transferred to Quantou Brigade.

In 1974, as retired personnel, Wang and Li were permitted to leave the countryside and settle in Tieling City,²⁷ where they lived with their youngest son, Wang Hong (王宏).

Wang Dulu died of illness on 12 February 1977 in Tieling, just months after the end of the Cultural Revolution. He was 68 years old (by traditional Chinese reckoning). He had been silenced as a writer for the last twenty-eight years of his life.

Personal life

Wang Dulu and Li Danquan had three children together. Their eldest son Wang Ying²⁸ (王膺) was born in spring 1939 after the couple settled in Qingdao. Wang Ying died of illness in 1974. Their daughter was Wang Qin²⁹ (王芹), and their youngest son was Wang Hong³⁰ (王宏).

Wang and Li’s marriage was characterized by complementary personalities. Li described herself as hot-tempered while Wang was more even-tempered. Despite their poverty, the couple maintained a close relationship, with Li actively supporting Wang’s literary work.

Wang was particularly fond of classical Chinese poetry. Li Danquan recalled that Wang gave her a copy of the Nalan Ci (纳兰词, Nàlán Cí),³¹ the collected poetry of the Qing dynasty poet Nalan Xingde,³² as a token of his love during their courtship. Wang’s deep affection for this melancholic Qing dynasty poet influenced the tragic, elegiac tone of his novels.

After Wang’s death, Li Danquan carefully preserved and organized his manuscripts and papers. She was able to accurately list all of his early detective novels from memory, demonstrating her intimate knowledge of his complete body of work. Li Danquan lived until June 2010, dying at age 94.

From 1953 onward, Li worked as a residential life teacher (舍务老师) at Liaoning Experimental Middle School, responsible for managing the daily lives of boarding students. Students affectionately called her “Old Mother” (老妈妈) and remembered her dedication, including personally escorting sick students to seek medical treatment.

Writing style

Wang Dulu’s writing style represented a revolutionary fusion of romance fiction techniques with martial arts adventure narratives, creating what critics have called “tragic wuxia romance” (悲剧侠情).

Realistic martial arts

Unlike his contemporaries who wrote fantastical tales of supernatural powers, flying swords, and magical techniques, Wang grounded his martial arts in realism. In his novels, dim mak³³ (pressure point striking) is considered an advanced and esoteric skill. There are no descriptions of qinggong³⁴ (lightness technique) allowing characters to fly, no internal energy projection, and no magical weapons.

This deliberate restraint in describing martial abilities allowed Wang to focus on the psychological and emotional dimensions of his characters. As one critic noted, his writing is simple and straightforward rather than ornate, yet this simplicity reveals profound humanity and emotional depth.

Psychological depth

Wang was influenced by Freudian psychoanalysis³⁵ and employed these techniques to explore his characters’ internal conflicts. His novels excel at portraying the internal contradictions of martial heroes and heroines, the struggle of human nature, and the complex circumstances where love and hate intertwine.

Scholar Xu Sinan³⁶ noted that Wang’s works should be understood as “psychological tragedies” in the Freudian sense, representing sophisticated engagement with modern Western psychology rare in Chinese popular fiction of the period.

Beijing dialect and Bannerman culture

As a native Beijinger from a Bannerman family, Wang’s prose naturally exhibits Beijing dialect characteristics³⁷ and what critics call “Beijing flavor” (京味儿) and “Banner flavor” (旗味儿). His writing features natural humor and the particular sensibility of Beijing’s Manchu Bannerman culture.

His novels should be considered part of both “Beijing flavor literature” (京味儿文学) and “Bannerman literature” (旗人文学), literary categories that include writers like Lao She³⁸ and Ye Guangqin.³⁹

Wang was particularly skilled at depicting ordinary people from Beijing’s lower social classes. His character Liu Taibao⁴⁰ in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon – a vain, verbose boxing instructor with a “hooligan spirit” (青皮习气) who nonetheless stubbornly pursues justice – exemplifies Wang’s mastery of this type of character.

Literary technique

Wang possessed solid grounding in both classical Chinese literature and modern vernacular fiction. His novels occasionally achieve moments of genuine literary beauty and atmospheric evocation despite sometimes rough prose.

Critics note that while his language can be unpolished, this roughness does not indicate lack of skill but rather reflects his focus on psychological realism over stylistic refinement. His deep foundation in classical literature combined with influence from May Fourth Movement⁴¹ new literature gave his writing its distinctive character.

Themes

Tragedy as philosophy

Wang Dulu’s most distinctive contribution to wuxia literature is his consistent use of tragic endings, unusual in Chinese popular fiction. Unlike traditional Chinese stories that typically end with poetic justice and happy reunions, Wang’s works present what scholars call tragedy of fate and worldly helplessness.

Scholar Ye Hongsheng⁴² observed that Wang’s tragedies are not spectacular sacrifices but rather portray characters ground down by circumstance and social pressure, telling readers about the reality and ruthlessness of the human world.

Critics attribute Wang’s tragic worldview to his impoverished childhood: Perhaps because he suffered poverty since childhood, he developed this creative philosophy.

The incompatibility of love and the martial life

The central thematic concern across Wang’s Crane-Iron Series is the fundamental incompatibility between romantic love and the solitary existence of the wandering martial artist.

In Crane Startles Kunlun, Jiang Xiaohe and A Luan, though childhood sweethearts, cannot overcome their family feud; A Luan ultimately commits suicide with Xiaohe’s own sword.

In Precious Sword, Golden Hairpin, Li Mubai and Yu Xiulian love each other but cannot marry because Yu Xiulian was betrothed in childhood to Meng Sizhao, and after Meng sacrifices his life for them, they feel bound by righteousness (大义) to remain forever as sworn siblings rather than lovers.

In Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, Yu Jiaolong and Luo Xiaohu love each other but cannot unite because Luo is an outlaw without official status, making it impossible for Yu, daughter of the Capital Gendarmerie commander, to marry him without destroying her family’s honor.

In Iron Knight, Silver Vase, the tragedy extends to the next generation when the secret child of Yu Jiaolong and Luo Xiaohu searches for parents he never knew, finding them only to witness their deaths.

Scholar Gong Pengcheng⁴³ insightfully observed that for Wang’s heroes, once a soulmate appears, it means their lonely journey has ended, and the life of the wandering martial artist has also reached its terminus.

The characters who achieve their heroic status precisely through their willingness to sacrifice personal happiness: Although ‘feudal concepts’ are at work here, they precisely achieve the ‘great hero’ image of the characters.

Feudal ethics as original sin

Wang Dulu’s novels powerfully expose how traditional Chinese ethics function as a form of original sin that his characters internalize and cannot escape.

Ye Hongsheng wrote that Wang mercilessly revealed and criticized how Yu Jiaolong treats her status as an official’s daughter like an inescapable curse. She is a rebellious spirit who steals the Green Destiny sword and challenges the martial arts establishment, yet she remains psychologically imprisoned by fear of ruining her family’s reputation.

The tragedy lies not in external obstacles but in internal psychological constraints: the lovers themselves cannot overcome the values they have internalized. Wang’s novels thus function as profound critiques of Confucian social ethics while simultaneously showing how these ethics define the nobility of his heroic characters.

Individual autonomy versus social duty

Wang’s works engage deeply with May Fourth Movement themes of individual autonomy versus social obligation, particularly regarding women’s independence and arranged marriage.

Yu Jiaolong’s rebellion against her arranged marriage to the ugly scholar Lu Junpei, her theft of the sword, and her rampage through the jianghu represent a powerful assertion of female agency. American critics noted that her rebellion against arranged marriage follows an Austen-esque story structure while Li Mubai and Yu Xiulian’s love remains bound by tradition.

Yet Wang does not present simple solutions. Yu Jiaolong achieves freedom from social constraints but finds no peace; Li Mubai and Yu Xiulian maintain their integrity but live in perpetual longing. Wang’s novels acknowledge both the nobility of traditional values and their terrible human cost.

Existential loneliness

Underlying all of Wang’s work is a profound sense of existential loneliness (孤独). His protagonists are typically orphans, and even those with families are psychologically isolated. Scholar Xu Sinan noted that loneliness, pride, solitude, melancholy, and occasional weakness characterize Wang’s heroes, reflecting Wang’s own psychological state.

This existential dimension makes Wang’s work distinctly modern. His tragedies are not simply about star-crossed lovers or social injustice but about the fundamental human condition of isolation and the impossibility of complete understanding between individuals.

During his active career from 1938 to 1949, Wang Dulu achieved tremendous popular success. His Crane-Iron Series novels were widely read throughout China, and his influence extended beyond occupied territories into Nationalist-controlled regions during the war.

He was recognized as one of the Northern Five Masters, placing him among the most influential wuxia writers of the Republican era alongside Huanzhu Louzhu, Gong Baiyu, Zheng Zhengyin, and Zhu Zhenmu.

Critical obscurity

After 1949, when Communist cultural policies banned martial arts and romance fiction, Wang effectively disappeared from literary discourse for nearly fifty years. Even professional literary scholars sometimes confused his work with adaptations, notably mistaking Nie Yunlan’s⁴⁴ 1957 rewrite Yu Jiaolong (玉娇龙) for the original Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon.

During this period of obscurity, only dedicated scholars of popular fiction like Xu Sinan and Ye Hongsheng maintained awareness of Wang’s significance and wrote scholarly articles about his work.

International recognition

Wang’s international recognition came posthumously through Ang Lee’s film adaptation. Lee discovered Wang’s novels in Taiwan and was immediately captivated: “I most admire the author’s traditional technique, full of nostalgic feeling toward classical Chinese society and culture. To a certain extent, it is very realistic, not sensationalist, not heterodox, and the design of the female characters is especially outstanding, plus a tragic ending – both extremely rare in martial arts films.”

The film’s unprecedented success – winning four Academy Awards including Best Foreign Language Film, Best Cinematography, Best Original Score, and Best Art Direction – brought Wang Dulu’s name to global attention for the first time.

Posthumous revival

Following the film’s success in 2000, Qunzhong Publishing House⁴⁵ purchased rights from Wang’s family and began publishing the Wang Dulu Wuxia Romance Novel Series (王度庐武侠言情小说集), starting with Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon.

Japanese publishers also sought translation rights for the complete Crane-Iron Series. Ang Lee expressed interest in filming the entire series, and a mainland China-Taiwan co-production television adaptation was announced.

In 2016, a sequel film Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: Sword of Destiny,⁴⁶ based on Wang’s novel Iron Knight, Silver Vase, was released, though it received mixed reviews.

Legacy

Influence on later wuxia

Wang Dulu’s innovations proved foundational for later wuxia development. Scholar Zhang Gansheng⁴⁷ argued that “without writers like Wang Dulu, there would be no Jin Yong”.

Wang’s integration of psychological realism, tragic romance, and realistic martial arts directly influenced the “new school” wuxia writers of Hong Kong and Taiwan, particularly Liang Yusheng⁴⁸ and Jin Yong. His emphasis on character psychology over fantastical martial powers anticipated the more grounded approach of these later masters.

Gu Long, another of the Three Great Masters of modern wuxia, explicitly acknowledged Wang’s influence: “At a certain stage of my life, I suddenly discovered that my favorite wuxia novelist was actually Wang Dulu”.

Integration of vernacular and classical traditions

Wang’s work represents an important synthesis of Chinese classical literary traditions and modern vernacular storytelling. His foundation in classical Chinese literature, combined with influence from May Fourth new literature and Western psychology, created a distinctive hybrid style that demonstrated how popular fiction could achieve literary sophistication.

His successful integration makes his work significant beyond the wuxia genre, positioning him as an important figure in the broader development of modern Chinese popular literature.

Contribution to tragic literature

Wang Dulu brought genuine tragic vision to Chinese popular fiction. Unlike traditional Chinese narratives that typically provide moral resolution and poetic justice, Wang’s tragedies engage with modern existential themes while remaining rooted in Chinese cultural contexts.

Scholar Xu Sinan argued that Wang’s works possess characteristics of Freudian “psychological tragedy,” representing sophisticated engagement with Western literary and psychological concepts rare in Chinese popular fiction of the 1930s-40s.

Cultural bridge between tradition and modernity

Wang’s novels function as cultural bridges between traditional Confucian ethics and modern individualism, between classical Chinese literature and vernacular storytelling, between Chinese martial arts traditions and Western psychological realism.

This bridging quality made his work particularly suitable for Ang Lee’s cinematic adaptation, which similarly bridges Chinese and Western cinematic traditions. Lee described the film as a martial arts adaptation of Jane Austen’s Sense and Sensibility,⁴⁹ highlighting how Wang’s themes of duty versus desire transcend specific cultural contexts.

Modern reassessment

Contemporary scholars increasingly recognize Wang Dulu as a major figure in twentieth-century Chinese popular literature whose significance extends beyond the wuxia genre. His psychological sophistication, tragic vision, engagement with modern philosophical concerns, and literary craftsmanship distinguish him as an important modernist working within popular genres.

The American newspaper Overseas Chinese Daily (侨报, Qiáobào) serialized Wang’s novels in the early 1990s, before the Ang Lee film, indicating growing international scholarly interest in Republican-era wuxia fiction.

Wang’s tragic fate – forced into silence for the last twenty-eight years of his life, dying just months after the Cultural Revolution ended, and only achieving international recognition posthumously – itself embodies the kind of poignant tragedy that characterizes his fiction. As one critic wrote, “Thinking about Wang Dulu’s and many Chinese writers’ circumstances, my ‘tragic feeling’ is greater than my ‘comic feeling,’ and the color of this tragic feeling is not ‘magnificent’ but ‘desolate’” (想想度庐先生和许多中国作家的遭际，我的「悲剧感」要大于「喜剧感」，这种悲剧感的色调亦非「壮美」而是「苍凉」).

Works

Detective and mystery novels (1931-1937)

Wang wrote numerous detective and mystery novels under his courtesy name Xiaoyu for Little Daily beginning in 1931. Li Danquan could accurately recall these early works from memory even after Wang’s death, though many have been lost.

Wuxia novels

Crane-Iron Pentalogy

The five interconnected novels of Wang’s masterwork, listed in internal chronological order:

1. Crane Startles Kunlun 《鶴驚崑崙》鹤惊昆仑 (Hè Jīng Kūnlún) – serialised 1940–1941 as Dancing Crane, Singing Phoenix 《舞鶴鳴鸞記》舞鹤鸣鸾记 (Wǔ Hè Míng Luán Jì)
2. Precious Sword, Golden Hairpin 《寶劍金釵》宝剑金钗 (Bǎojiàn Jīnchāi) – serialised 1938–1939; collected edition 1939
3. Sword Qi, Pearl Radiance 《劍氣珠光》剑气珠光 (Jiànqì Zhūguāng) – serialised 1939–1940; collected edition 1941
4. Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon 《臥虎藏龍》卧虎藏龙 (Wò Hǔ Cáng Lóng) – serialised 1941–1942; collected edition 1948
5. Iron Steed, Silver Vase 《鐵騎銀瓶》铁骑银瓶 (Tiěqí Yínpíng) – serialised 1942–1944; collected edition 1948

Other wuxia novels

• The Wandering Heroes of Rivers and Mountains 《河岳遊俠傳》河岳游侠传 (Héyuè Yóuxiá Zhuàn) – 1938, approximately 200,000 characters; never collected
• Ancient City, New Moon 《古城新月》古城新月 (Gǔchéng Xīnyuè) – serialised 1940–1941; collected in 4 volumes 1948–1950
• Twin Blades of the Storm Dragon 《風雨雙龍劍》风雨双龙剑 (Fēngyǔ Shuānglóng Jiàn) – serialised 1940–1941; collected 1948
• Chronicle of the Luminous Phoenix and Silver Serpent 《彩鳳銀蛇傳》彩凤银蛇传 (Cǎifèng Yínshé Zhuàn) – serialised 1941–1942
• Slender Sword 《纖纖劍》纤纤剑 (Xiānxiān Jiàn) – serialised 1942
• Record of the Dancing Sword and Flying Blossoms 《舞劍飛花錄》舞剑飞花录 (Wǔjiàn Fēihuā Lù) – serialised 1943–1944; collected 1949 as Luoyang Gallants 《洛陽豪客》洛阳豪客 (Luòyáng Háokè)
• Tale of the Twin Mandarin Ducks in the Great Desert 《大漠雙鴛譜》大漠双鸳谱 (Dàmò Shuāng Yuān Pǔ) – serialised 1943–1944
• Cold Plum Melody 《寒梅曲》寒梅曲 (Hánméi Qǔ) – serialised 1943–1944; unfinished
• Record of the Purple Lightning and Azure Frost 《紫電青霜錄》紫电青霜录 (Zǐdiàn Qīngshuāng Lù) – serialised 1944–1945; collected 1948 as Purple Lightning, Azure Frost 《紫電青霜》紫电青霜 (Zǐdiàn Qīngshuāng)
• Purple Phoenix Dart 《紫鳳鏢》紫凤镖 (Zǐfèng Biāo) – serialised 1946–1947; collected 1949
• Romance of Xiake in Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 《太平天國情俠圖》太平天国情侠图 (Tàipíng Tiānguó Qíngxiá Tú) – serialised 1947; fragment only
• Chronicle of Xiake in the Late Qing Dynasty 《清末俠客傳》清末侠客传 (Qīng Mò Xiákè Zhuàn) – serialised 1947–1948; collected in 2 volumes 1948
• Yongzheng and Nian Gengyao 《雍正與年羹堯》雍正与年羹尧 (Yōngzhèng yǔ Nián Gēngyáo) – serialised 1947–1948; collected 1949 as New Blood Drop 《新血滴子》新血滴子 (Xīn Xuèdīzi)
• Flying Precious Blade 《寶刀飛》宝刀飞 (Bǎodāo Fēi) – serialised 1948; collected 1948
• Xia of the Yan Market 《燕市俠伶》燕市侠伶 (Yànshì Xiálíng) – serialised 1948; unfinished
• Vajra King’s Precious Blade 《金剛王寶劍》金刚王宝剑 (Jīngāng Wáng Bǎojiàn) – serialised 1948–1949; collected in 3 volumes 1949
• Linked Iron Chains of Dragon and Tiger 《龍虎鐵連環》龙虎铁连环 (Lónghǔ Tiě Liánhuán) – serialised 1948; unfinished
• Chronicle of the Jade Pendant and Golden Blade 《玉佩金刀記》玉佩金刀记 (Yùpèi Jīndāo Jì) – serialised 1949; unfinished

Romance and social novels

Wang also wrote numerous contemporary romance and social novels under the pen name Xiaoyu, including:

• Spring Passion in the Jade Tower 《瓊樓春情》琼楼春情 (Qiónglóu Chūnqíng)
• Falling Catkins, Drifting Fragrance 《落絮飄香》落絮飘香 (Luòxù Piāoxiāng) – serialised 1939–1940; collected 1948
• Cold Sword, Desolate Fragrance 《冷劍悽芳》冷剑凄芳 (Lěngjiàn Qīfāng)
• The Returnee on the Emerald Path 《翠陌歸人》翠陌归人 (Cuìmò Guīrén)
• Mutual Grace of the Morning Dew 《朝露相恩》朝露相恩 (Zhāolù Xiāng’ēn)
• Rosy Clouds over the Sea 《海上紅霞》海上红霞 (Hǎishàng Hóngxiá) – serialised 1941; collected in 2 volumes 1949
• Lavish Dream of the Vermilion Gate 《朱門綺夢》朱门绮梦 (Zhūmén Qǐmèng)
• Poppy 《虞美人》虞美人 (Yúměirén) – serialised 1941–1943; collected in multiple volumes 1949
• Beauties Adorned in Powder and Ink 《粉墨嬋娟》粉墨婵娟 (Fěnmò Chánjuān) – serialised 1948; collected in 2 volumes 1948
• Late Fragrant Jade 《晚香玉》晚香玉 (Wǎnxiāng Yù) – serialised 1947–1948; collected in 2 volumes 1948

See also

• Jin Yong
• Liang Yusheng
• Gu Long

External links

• Wang Dulu on Wikipedia
• Wang Dulu (Chinese) on Chinese Wikipedia
• Wang Dulu (Chinese) on Baidu Baike

Footnotes

1. 王葆祥 – Wáng Bǎoxiáng. Later changed to 王葆翔. His courtesy name was Xiaoyu (霄羽, Xiāoyǔ). ↩

2. 北派五大家 – Běipài Wǔ Dàjiā. The five most influential wuxia writers of northern China in the Republican era. ↩

3. 还珠楼主 – Huánzhū Lóuzhǔ. Pen name of Li Shoumin (李寿民), known for fantastical martial arts novels incorporating Daoist and Buddhist mysticism. ↩

4. 宫白羽 – Gōng Báiyǔ. Pen name of Gong Zhuxin (宫竺心), known for social satire in martial arts novels. ↩

5. 郑证因 – Zhèng Zhèngyīn. Pen name of Zheng Zhengyin, known for gang and martial arts school fiction. ↩

6. 朱贞木 – Zhū Zhēnmù. Known for mystery and detective elements in wuxia fiction. ↩

7. 旗人 – Qírén. Members of the Eight Banners administrative and military system of the Qing dynasty. ↩

8. 后门里 – Hòumén Lǐ. “Behind the Gate” – a neighborhood near Dianmen (地安门), the northern gate of the Forbidden City. Houmen (后门) is the common name for Dianmen. ↩

9. 八旗 – Bāqí. The administrative and military divisions of Manchu society during the Qing dynasty. See Wikipedia. ↩

10. 上驷院 – Shàngsìyuàn. The Office of the Imperial Stud, responsible for managing the emperor’s horses, carriages, and transportation. ↩

11. 俸禄 – Fènglù. The regular stipend paid to bannermen families by the Qing government, abolished in 1909. ↩

12. 旧制高等小学 – Jiùzhì Gāoděng Xiǎoxué. Primary education institutions in the late Qing and early Republican period. ↩

13. 宋心灯 – Sòng Xīndēng. Publisher and editor who gave Wang Dulu his first professional position. ↩

14. 李丹荃 – Lǐ Dānquán (1916–2010). Wang’s wife, a Han Chinese teacher from Shaanxi who supported him throughout his career. She was known for her complementary personality to Wang’s and helped organize his manuscripts after his death. ↩

15. 周至县 – Zhōuzhì Xiàn. A county in Shaanxi Province near Xi’an. ↩

16. 青岛 – Qīngdǎo. A coastal city in Shandong Province that was occupied by Japan from 1938 to 1945. ↩

17. 春联 – Chūnlián. Traditional Chinese New Year decorations consisting of poetry written on red paper. ↩

18. 江湖 – Jiānghú. Literally “rivers and lakes,” referring to the martial arts underworld. See What is jianghu? for a detailed explanation. ↩

19. 重庆 – Chóngqìng. The wartime capital of the Nationalist government, located in Sichuan Province. ↩

20. 励力出版社 – Lìlì Chūbǎnshè. A Shanghai publishing house that published collected editions of Wang’s works in the late 1940s. ↩

21. 大连 – Dàlián. A port city in Liaoning Province in northeastern China. ↩

22. 沈阳 – Shěnyáng. The capital of Liaoning Province. ↩

23. 中国民主促进会 – Zhōngguó Mínzhǔ Cùjìnhuì. One of the eight legally recognized minor political parties in the People’s Republic of China. ↩

24. 文化大革命 – Wénhuà Dàgémìng. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), a sociopolitical movement in China. See Wikipedia. ↩

25. 下放 – Xiàfàng. The policy of sending urban intellectuals and officials to rural areas for manual labor and ideological reformation. ↩

26. 昌图县 – Chāngtú Xiàn. A county in northern Liaoning Province. ↩

27. 铁岭市 – Tiělǐng Shì. A prefecture-level city in Liaoning Province. ↩

28. 王膺 – Wáng Yīng (1939-1974) ↩

29. 王芹 – Wáng Qín ↩

30. 王宏 – Wáng Hóng ↩

31. 纳兰词 – Nàlán Cí. The collected poetry of Nalan Xingde (纳兰性德), a noted Qing dynasty poet known for his melancholic ci poetry. ↩

32. 纳兰性德 – Nàlán Xìngdé (1655–1685). A Qing dynasty poet of Manchu ethnicity, noted for his melancholic and elegant poetry. See Wikipedia. ↩

33. 点穴 – Diǎnxuè. The technique of striking or sealing acupuncture points to disable opponents. ↩

34. 轻功 – Qīnggōng. The martial arts technique of moving with extreme lightness and agility, often depicted as allowing flight in fantastical wuxia. ↩

35. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis. Wang’s knowledge of Freudian concepts was unusual for a Chinese popular novelist of his era. ↩

36. 徐斯年 – Xú Sīnián. Contemporary scholar and critic of popular Chinese fiction. ↩

37. 北京话 – Běijīnghuà. Beijing dialect or Pekingese, the prestige variety of Mandarin Chinese. ↩

38. 老舍 – Lǎo Shě (1899-1966). Major modern Chinese novelist and dramatist, also of Manchu Bannerman background, famous for Rickshaw Boy and other works depicting Beijing life. See Wikipedia. ↩

39. 叶广芩 – Yè Guǎngqín (b. 1948). Contemporary Chinese novelist who writes about Bannerman culture and Beijing traditions. ↩

40. 刘泰保 – Liú Tàibǎo. Nicknamed “One Lotus Flower” (一朵莲花), a memorable supporting character in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. ↩

41. 五四运动 – Wǔsì Yùndòng. The May Fourth Movement of 1919, a cultural and political movement that promoted vernacular Chinese literature and Western-influenced modernization. See Wikipedia. ↩

42. 叶洪生 – Yè Hóngshēng. Taiwanese scholar and leading authority on Republican-era wuxia fiction. ↩

43. 龚鹏程 – Gōng Péngchéng. Taiwanese scholar and cultural critic. ↩

44. 聂云岚 – Niè Yúnlán. Writer who created popular rewrites of Wang Dulu’s novels in the 1950s. ↩

45. 群众出版社 – Qúnzhòng Chūbǎnshè. A Beijing-based publishing house. ↩

46. The film was directed by Yuen Woo-ping and starred Donnie Yen and Michelle Yeoh. See Wikipedia. ↩

47. 张赣生 – Zhāng Gànshēng. Contemporary scholar specializing in popular Chinese fiction. ↩

48. 梁羽生 – Liáng Yǔshēng. Pen name of Chen Wentong (陈文统, 1924-2009), one of the pioneers of “new school” wuxia alongside Jin Yong. See Liang Yusheng. ↩

49. Jane Austen (1775-1817). English novelist known for her novels of manners, including Sense and Sensibility (1811). See Wikipedia. ↩