Gu Long (simplified: 古龙, traditional: 古龍, pinyin: Gǔ Lóng) revolutionized the wuxia genre in the 1960s and 1970s by introducing modern psychological complexity and Western literary elements into traditional martial arts fiction.
Born Xiong Yaohua (simplified: 熊耀华, traditional: 熊耀華, pinyin: Xióng Yàohuá) on 7 June 1938 in Hong Kong, he became one of the most influential and prolific writers of new school wuxia fiction, producing over 70 novels in his lifetime.
Gu Long is considered one of the Three Swordsmen of Wuxia Fiction alongside Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng, and later on as one of the Four Grandmasters of Wuxia Fiction, with the addition of Wei Ruian to the trio.
However, his innovative style and modern sensibilities set him apart from his contemporaries. His works broke from traditional wuxia conventions by emphasizing psychological complexity, moral ambiguity, and contemporary themes, establishing a new direction for the genre.
Early Life
Gu Long was born in Hong Kong in 1938. His father, Xiong Pengsheng,1 also known as Xiong Fei,2 was reportedly a civil engineering graduate from Peking University. Young Gu Long attended Tsuen Wan Tak Sing School3 in his early years before moving to Taiwan with his parents in 1950.
In Taiwan, he attended the affiliated middle school of Taiwan Provincial Teachers College (now National Taiwan Normal University). According to his classmate Zhu Bangfu,4 Gu Long was in Class 36 and developed a crush on a student named Gu Cuifeng5 from Class 35, which later inspired his pen name.
In autumn 1954, he was admitted to Cheng Kung Senior High School.6 His father, who occasionally published wuxia stories under the pen name Eastern Guest,7, influenced young Gu Long to write poetry and short stories for publications like Blue Star Poetry Journal8 and Cheng Kung Youth.9
During his second year of high school in 1955, he published his first story From North Country to South Country10 in Morning Light Magazine.11 In autumn 1957, he entered the night school program at Tamkang College of English12 (now Tamkang University) and studied in the Foreign Language Department.
His father’s career initially seemed promising when he became a confidential secretary to Taipei Mayor Gao Yushu.13 However, everything changed when his father abandoned the family for Zhang Xiubi.14 This betrayal profoundly impacted young Gu Long, leading him to drop out of university and join the Four Seas Guild,15 a student organization, marking the beginning of his bohemian lifestyle.
Career
Early Phase (1960-1963)
Gu Long’s professional writing career began in 1960 as a means of survival. During this initial phase, he published over ten novels including Legend of the Orphaned Star and The Flower-Guarding Bell.
During this time, Taiwan’s wuxia scene was dominated by the Three Swordsmen—Wolong Sheng,16, Sima Ling,[^sima], and Zhuge Qingyun.17 Gu Long cultivated relationships with them and even ghostwrote several of their works. He was supported by close friends like “Brother Niu” Li Feimeng18 and “Sister Niu” Feng Nani,19 who looked after him during this period.
Gu Long had to deal with his lack of proper household registration and identification documents, stemming from his earlier draft evasion. This created ongoing legal complications throughout his life.
Development Phase (1963-1967)
In 1963, his career entered a new phase when he began living in Ruifang Township.20 During this period, he published six major novels that established his reputation:
- Lover’s Arrow
- Legend of the Banner Heroes
- Cleansing Flowers, Refining the Sword was a milestone that explored wudao (武道) philosophy and drew inspiration from Musashi and Japanese literature
- The Sword and Exquisiteness
- Unofficial History of the Wulin established his distinctive “wanderer” style
- Legendary Siblings was notably well-received for its allegorical themes
This period culminated in 1967 with the publication of Iron Blood Legend, later known as The Legend of Chu Liuxiang. These works, each approaching or exceeding a million characters, marked his maturation as a writer.
Mature Phase (1968-1979)
His mature period began in 1968-1969 with Sentimental Swordsman, Ruthless Sword. This phase produced his most celebrated works including:
- The Eleventh Son
- Meteor, Butterfly, Sword
- The Lu Xiaofeng series
- Heroes Shed No Tears
Notably, Jin Yong personally invited him to write Lu Xiaofeng for Ming Pao21 after Jin Yong’s retirement, symbolizing a passing of the torch between generations.
Decline (1979-1985)
His decline began after completing Heroes Shed No Tears and Legend of the New Moon in 1979. His creative output diminished sharply, and ghostwriters became increasingly common. By 1981, he had entered what became known as his withering period, attributed to both his shift toward screenwriting and deteriorating health.
Personal Life
Relationships and family
Throughout his life, Gu Long maintained several significant relationships. His first relationship was with dance hostess Zheng Yuexia,[^zhengyuexia] known as Lili, who bore him his first son Zheng Xiaolong,[^zhengxiaolong] who later became a police officer.
Due to Gu Long’s household registration problems stemming from his earlier draft evasion, his son had to take his mother’s surname.
[zhengyuexia]: 郑月霞 – Zhèng Yuèxiá
[zhengxiaolong]: 郑小龙 – Zhèng Xiǎolóng
He later had a relationship with another dance hostess Ye Xue,22 who bore him his second son Ye Yikuan.23
His first legal marriage was to Mei Baozhu24 using false identification documents, and she who gave birth to Xiong Zhengda,25 his third son, who was able to then take his father’s surname.
Decline and death
The pivotal moment in Gu Long’s later life came on 22 October 1980, at the Yinsong Pavilion Hotel26 in Beitou. A confrontation erupted when Gu Long refused to go to the adjacent Room 212 to offer a toast to actor Ko Chun-hsiung27 who was in the adjacent room. This led to a violent attack by Ye Qinghui28 and Chen Wenhe,29 who attacked him with a drilling tool and knife, severely injuring his right hand.
While he survived thanks to his friends’ intervention, the emergency blood transfusion he received came from paid blood donors of dubious origins known as blood cattle, which infected him with hepatitis. His health deteriorated rapidly after this incident.
His final years were marked by failed marriages, unsuccessful film investments, and increasing dependence on alcohol. Between 1982 and 1984, his internal organs began failing. He died on 21 September 1985, from esophageal varices bleeding caused by cirrhosis.
At his funeral, his friend Qiao Qi (乔奇, Qiáo Qí)30 composed the famous couplet:
小李飞刀成绝响，人间不见楚留香
Little Li’s Flying Dagger falls silent;
In this world, Chu Liuxiang is seen no more
His friends, including Wang Yu (王羽, Wáng Yǔ)31, Lin Qingxuan (林清玄, Lín Qīngxuán)32, and Ni Kuang (倪匡, Ní Kuāng)33, placed 48 bottles of XO cognac in his coffin. He was buried in the Wandaifu Memorial Zone of the Beihai Mingshan Cemetery in Sanzhi, Taipei County.
Writing style
Gu Long revolutionized wuxia fiction by developing a highly distinctive style that broke from traditional conventions. Throughout his career, Gu Long repeatedly declared “it’s time for wuxia novels to evolve”.34 This philosophy of constant innovation was reflected in how he melded Chinese traditions with Western literary influences.
Creative fusion
His creative fusion can be seen in works like Sentimental Swordsman, Ruthless Sword, which combined elements from Wang Dulu’s martial arts series and Jack London’s Call of the Wild. Similarly, John Steinbeck’s Tortilla Flat influenced the narrative structure of Happy Heroes, while both Mario Puzo’s The Godfather and the Japanese manga Lone Wolf and Cub influenced the style and themes of Meteor, Butterfly, Sword.
Narrative technique
His prose was characterized by short, punchy sentences and extensive use of dialogue, creating a dramatic, almost theatrical effect. Unlike the elaborate descriptive passages common in traditional wuxia, Gu Long favored a minimalist style that he likened to “using a sword to cut through flowing water”.35
Literary influences
His works were significantly influenced by Western literature, particularly:
- Ernest Hemingway’s terse dialogue and understated emotion
- Jack London’s exploration of primal human nature
- John Steinbeck’s portrayal of outsiders and wanderers
- Friedrich Nietzsche’s philosophical contemplations
He also drew inspiration from detective fiction and film noir, incorporating elements of mystery and psychological complexity into his narratives. This fusion of Eastern and Western elements created a unique hybrid style that distinguished his work from traditional wuxia.
Character development
Unlike his contemporaries who often emphasized martial arts techniques and historical accuracy, Gu Long focused on psychological depth and character relationships. His protagonists frequently engage in introspective monologues and face complex moral dilemmas, making them more relatable to modern readers.
Themes
Gu Long’s works explored several recurring themes that reflected both his personal philosophy and the changing social landscape of his time:
Psychology and human nature
At the heart of Gu Long’s work lies a deep fascination with human psychology. His stories frequently explored the duality of human nature, examining how past experiences shape present behavior and decisions.
Characters often grapple with internal conflicts that blur the line between appearance and reality. Through their struggles, Gu Long portrayed the psychological toll of the martial arts world, where violence and vengeance exact a heavy price on the psyche.
Love and friendship
While romance features prominently in his works, Gu Long placed particular emphasis on the complex bonds of wulin brotherhood. His stories often explore the intricate relationships between masters and disciples, sworn brothers, and companions in the martial arts world.
These relationships frequently test the boundaries between love and duty, personal desire and obligation, forcing characters to question the true meaning of loyalty and friendship.
Modernity versus tradition
Throughout his works, Gu Long examined the tension between traditional martial arts values and modern sensibilities. His characters often find themselves caught between personal desires and social obligations, struggling to balance individual freedom with collective responsibility.
This conflict reflects the broader societal changes of his time, as traditional Chinese culture grappled with modernization and Western influences.
Justice and morality
Unlike the clear moral divisions common in traditional wuxia, Gu Long presented a more nuanced view of justice and morality. His stories frequently place characters in morally ambiguous situations where right and wrong are not easily distinguished.
Through these complex ethical dilemmas, he questioned conventional notions of justice and explored the true cost of pursuing righteousness. His characters often discover that upholding justice requires personal sacrifice and may lead to unintended consequences.
Legacy
Gu Long’s impact on wuxia literature and Chinese popular culture has been profound and long-lasting. His innovations transformed the genre in several key ways:
Genre innovation
His introduction of psychological complexity and modern sensibilities into wuxia created a new school of martial arts fiction that influenced subsequent generations of writers.
His emphasis on character psychology over martial arts techniques marked a significant departure from traditional wuxia storytelling.
Literary influence
His distinctive writing style, characterized by short sentences and dramatic dialogue, influenced many later writers. The integration of Western literary elements with traditional Chinese storytelling opened new possibilities for the genre.
Cultural impact
His characters and stories have become deeply embedded in Chinese popular culture. Phrases and characters from his works are frequently referenced, particularly:
- Lu Xiaofeng’s wit and charm
- Chu Liuxiang’s sophisticated heroism
- The tragic romance of Sentimental Swordsman, Ruthless Sword
Critical reception
While some critics initially dismissed his work as too unconventional, his contributions to modernizing the genre have been increasingly recognized.
Jin Yong praised him as “a writer of great talent with extraordinary imagination” though noting that his work was sometimes uneven due to his rushed writing schedule and reliance on ghostwriters in his later years.
Notable works
See also: Gu Long novels
The Lu Xiaofeng series
A seven-novel series following the adventures of Lu Xiaofeng, a brilliant young martial artist who solves mysteries:
- The Legend of Lu Xiaofeng (陸小鳳傳奇)
- The Embroidery Bandit (繡花大盜)
- Before and After the Duel (決戰前後)
- The Silver Hook Gambling House (銀鈎賭坊)
- Phantom Manor (幽靈山莊)
- The Phoenix Dances in the Nine Heavens (鳳舞九天)
- Laughter of the Sword God (劍神一笑)
The Chu Liuxiang series
Eight novels featuring the sophisticated thief Chu Liuxiang:
- Fragrance in the Sea of Blood (血海飄香)
- The Vast Desert (大沙漠)
- The Thrush (畫眉鳥)
- The Legend of the Bat (蝙蝠傳奇)
- Phantom Love and Heroic Romance (鬼戀俠情)
- The Legend of the Peach Blossom (桃花傳奇)
- The Legend of the New Moon (新月傳奇)
- The Midnight Orchid (午夜蘭花)
Other major works
- Legendary Siblings (絕代雙驕)
- Little Li Flying Dagger series (小李飛刀系列)
- The Eleventh Son series (蕭十一郎系列)
- Heroes Shed No Tears (英雄無淚)
Footnotes
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熊鹏声 – Xióng Péngshēng ↩
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熊飞 – Xióng Fēi ↩
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德声学校 – Dé Shēng Xuéxiào. Hong Kong primary school. ↩
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朱邦复 – Zhū Bāngfù ↩
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古翠凤 – Gǔ Cuìfèng ↩
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成功高中 – Chénggōng Gāozhōng. A prestigious high school in Taiwan. See Wikipedia. ↩
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东方客 – Dōngfāng Kè ↩
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蓝星诗刊 – Lánxīng Shīkān ↩
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成功青年 – Chénggōng Qīngnián. ↩
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从北国到南国 – Cóng Běiguó dào Nánguó ↩
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晨光杂志 – Chéngguāng Zhìzhì ↩
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高玉树 – Gāo Yùshù ↩
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张秀碧 – Zhāng Xiùbì ↩
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四海帮 – Sìhǎi Bāng. A prominent student organization in Taiwan at the time. ↩
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卧龙生 – Wòlóng Shēng. One of the dominant wuxia writers in Taiwan during the early 1960s. ↩
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诸葛青云 – Zhūgě Qīngyún. The third of the “Three Swordsmen” who dominated Taiwan’s wuxia scene. ↩
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李费蒙 – Lǐ Fèiméng. One of Gu Long’s important early supporters. ↩
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冯娜妮 – Féng Nàní. Gu Long’s college senior who supported his early career. ↩
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瑞芳镇 – Ruìfāng Zhèn. Now Ruifang District of New Taipei City. See Wikipedia. ↩
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明報 – Míng Bào. A Hong Kong newspaper that was founded in 1959 See Wikipedia. ↩
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叶雪 – Yè Xuě. ↩
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叶怡宽 – Yè Yíkuān ↩
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梅宝珠 – Méi Bǎozhū ↩
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熊正达 – Xióng Zhèngdá ↩
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吟松阁旅社 – Yínsōng Gé Lǚshè ↩
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柯俊雄 – Kē Jùnxióng. A famous Taiwanese actor. ↩
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叶庆辉 – Yè Qìnghuī ↩
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陈文和 – Chén Wénhé ↩
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乔奇 – Qiáo Qí ↩
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王羽 – Wáng Yǔ. A famous actor who appeared in adaptations of Gu Long’s works. ↩
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林清玄 – Lín Qīngxuán. A writer and friend. ↩
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倪匡 – Ní Kuāng. A prominent Hong Kong writer and close friend. ↩
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武侠小说到了要变的时候了 ↩
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In his own words: “长句读来如浩荡大河一泻而来，突然以短句相接，犹如一把剑把水截断” – “Long sentences flow like a mighty river, suddenly intercepted by short sentences like a sword cutting through water.” ↩
