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The Deer and the Cauldron

The Deer and the Cauldron

The Deer and the Cauldron (simplified: 鹿鼎记, traditional: 鹿鼎記, pinyin: Lù Dǐng Jì, jyutping: Luk6 Ding2 Gei3) was serialised in Hong Kong’s Ming Pao newspaper from 24 October 1969 to 23 September 1972. Jin Yong wrote the novel at the height of his creative powers. The novel’s popularity grew despite—or perhaps because of—its departure from traditional wuxia conventions traditional wuxia conventions through its use of an anti-heroic protagonist and satirical elements.

The novel underwent two revisions after its initial serialisation. In 1980, Jin Yong revised the work as the Second Edition for publication by Ming Ho Publications. He later revealed in interviews that during this revision, he considered changing the ending to give Wei Xiaobao a more morally appropriate fate, having him lose his wealth and wives. However, strong reader opposition led him to maintain the original ending.

A second revision, published in early 2003 as the Third Edition, included further refinements to the text and an additional appendix titled “Where Does the Soul Return” of about 5,000 characters. In this appendix, Jin Yong shared his thoughts on life, love, and ethnicity through Wei Xiaobao’s perspective.

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Title translation

The novel’s title combines two classical Chinese metaphors for imperial power explained in the first chapter through a conversation between the poet Lü Liuliang1 and his son.

The cauldron

The cauldron (鼎 – dǐng) references a story from the The Commentary of Zuo,2 where King Zhuang of Chu,3 a vassal state of the Zhou Dynasty,4 enquired about the weight of the Nine Tripod Cauldrons.5 The cauldrons were viewed as the symbols of authority given by the Mandate of Heaven,6 and was in the possession of King of Zhou in the central plains.

This revealed his ambition to seize the Mandate of Heaven from the Zhou Dynasty. The incident became a Chinese idiom “to enquire about the cauldrons in the central plains”,7 meaning to have great ambitions.

The deer

The deer (鹿 – lù) comes from a remark by Kuai Tong[^kuaitong] documented in the Records of the Grand Historian:8 “The Qin emperor lost his deer, and all under heaven chased after it.” The deer symbolises the throne of China, with those pursuing it representing warlords vying for power.

Jin Yong adds a second layer through the conversation that while it is uncertain who would catch the deer, the deer’s fate is certain death. Here, the deer represents the common people who suffer regardless of who wins the power struggle. This symbolism refers to the novel’s broader themes about power struggle and its impact on the ordinary people.

The title

The title literally means the chronicles of the deer and the cauldron. Lü Liuliang explains that the cauldron has been used both to cook hunted deer, and as an instrument of torture. The title thus carries multiple layers of meaning about power, ambition, and the relationship between ruler and ruled.

The Duke of Mount Deer is often used, a reference to Wei Xiaobao’s title but it loses the nuances and layered meanings of the oringial title.

Plot

Background

The story is set during the early Qing dynasty9 in the reign of the Kangxi Emperor10 (1661-1722). The novel is set against the backdrop of the Zhuang Tinglong literary case[^zhuang] that occurred in the early years of the Kangxi Emperor’s reign.

During this time, the regent Oboi introduced literary inquisitions11 to control intellectual discourse. The case began when Wu Zhirong reported that Zhuang Tinglong, a merchant from Huzhou,12 had published an unauthorized history of the Ming dynasty using the taboo Ming era names. This led to widespread persecutions that set the tone for the novel’s exploration of power and legitimacy.

The story spans from 1668 to 1689, covering major historical events including:

  • The fall of regent Oboi (1668)
  • Wu Sangui’s rebellion (1673*1681)
  • The conquest of Taiwan (1683)
  • The Treaty of Nerchinsk13 with Russia (1689)

Sutra of Forty-two Chapters

Central to the novel’s plot is the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters,14 a Buddhist text of which the Manchu rulers made eight copies. When the Qing forces conquered China, they amassed great treasure and hid it in northeast China. The map to this location was torn into pieces and hidden within these eight books, each given to one of the Eight Banners15 for safekeeping.

To ensure secrecy, the Banner commanders were told the books contained directions to the Dragon’s Meridian,16 the mystical source of Manchu rule, rather than treasure. Only the emperor knew the truth. The books become highly covted by various factions

Wei Xiaobao eventually collects all eight pieces and discovers the treasure’s location at Deer Cauldron Mountain17 in Heilongjiang. However, believing it to be the source of Qing imperial legitimacy, he chooses not to claim it.

Summary

Born to the courtesan Wei Chunhua in Yangzhou18’s Lizhun Brothel, Wei Xiaobao grows up as a street-smart though illiterate youth. His life changes when he helps the outlaw Mao Shiba evade authorities. The grateful Mao takes Wei to Beijing, where they are intercepted by the palace eunuch Hai Dafu and his young assistant. Wei kills the assistant and impersonates him to survive in the palace.

Inside the palace, Wei stumbles upon a young boy practicing martial arts who introduces himself as Little Xuan. Unbeknownst to Wei, this boy is actually the Kangxi Emperor in disguise. The two quickly form a close and playful friendship, often sparring and exchanging banter. Wei’s resourcefulness and audacity soon catch the emperor’s attention, and he becomes an unlikely confidant. When the domineering regent Oboi threatens to usurp imperial power, Wei devises a cunning plan involving the palace eunuchs to help Kangxi capture and depose Oboi, solidifying his place as a trusted ally of the emperor.

During his time in the palace, Wei accidentally overhears a secret conversation revealing that the previous emperor, Shunzhi Emperor, is still alive and living as a monk. He also uncovers that the Empress Dowager is an impostor named Mao Dongzhu. Realizing the gravity of these secrets, Wei chooses to reveal them to Kangxi, who then sends him on a mission to Tiantai Mountain monastery19 to locate his father.

Wei’s adventures soon draw him into the world of the Heaven and Earth Society, an anti-Qing secret fraternity. The society’s charismatic leader, Chen Jinnan, is impressed by Wei’s role in defeating Oboi and accepts him as a disciple, appointing him as the leader of the Green Wood Lodge. This marks the beginning of Wei’s double life: a palace insider and confidant of the emperor on one hand, and a revolutionary plotting against the Qing on the other.

Wei’s fortunes take another twist when he is captured by the secretive Mystic Dragon Order. Relying on his trademark blend of flattery, cunning, and opportunism, he wins the trust of the Order’s leader, Hong Antong, and is appointed as one of its Five Emissaries. During his time with the Order, he forms a close relationship with Hong’s wife, Su Quan, who later becomes one of his wives.

As Wei’s political influence grows, he is tasked with serving as the imperial envoy for the marriage between Princess Jianning and Wu Sangui’s son, Wu Yingxiong. However, Wei and the princess begin a secret affair. In Yunnan, the headstrong princess violently rejects her intended husband, castrating Wu Yingxiong, and Wei is forced to flee with her, taking Wu Yingxiong hostage.

Wei’s adventures take him even further afield when, during a mission against the Mystic Dragon Order, he and his loyal servant Shuanger are captured but manage to escape north to Russia. There, Wei becomes embroiled in the power struggles of the Russian court, meeting Princess Sophia20, who is vying for regency after the death of Tsar Feodor III21. Drawing on his knowledge of Chinese opera plots and statecraft, Wei manipulates the Streltsy guards22 to help Sophia seize power, earning himself the title of Russian count.

After successfully helping to negotiate the Treaty of Nerchinsk as Russia’s envoy, Wei returns to China, only to find his personal life growing ever more complicated. His first wife, Princess Jianning, enters his life through the failed political marriage arrangement with Wu Sangui’s son, and their scandalous affair cements her place in his household. Su Quan becomes his wife after the dramatic collapse of the Mystic Dragon Order, where she had been the leader’s wife.

From the Mu Prince’s Manor, Wei gains two more wives: Fang Yi and Mu Jianping, both skilled martial artists whose fates become entwined with his through a series of perilous adventures. Shuanger, originally given to him as a reward for loyalty, proves to be one of his most devoted and steadfast companions. His relationship with A’ke takes a surprising turn when she is revealed to be the daughter of the legendary courtesan Chen Yuanyuan and the rebel leader Li Zicheng. Finally, through his encounters with the Wang Wu School, Wei meets and marries Zeng Rou, adding her to his ever-growing and diverse household.

Each of these marriages is rooted in its own web of political intrigue, personal loyalty, and romantic adventure, reflecting the tangled and often chaotic relationships that Wei must navigate. Despite the unconventional nature of his family, each wife brings unique strengths and challenges, contributing to Wei’s survival and success in the treacherous world of imperial politics.

As the story progresses, Wei’s intricate web of loyalties begins to unravel. He becomes entangled in a plot when the Gui family attempts to assassinate Kangxi. Although he saves the emperor’s life, the incident exposes his ties to the Heaven and Earth Society. The situation is further complicated when his master, Chen Jinnan, is killed by Koxinga23, the ruler of the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan.

The crisis deepens when prominent Ming loyalist scholars, including Gu Yanwu24, Huang Zongxi25, and Lü Liuliang, approach Wei to lead an anti-Qing uprising. At the same time, Kangxi demands that Wei help eliminate the Heaven and Earth Society. Caught between irreconcilable loyalties to his friends, his master, and the emperor, Wei ultimately chooses to fake his own death and disappears with his family to Dali26, seeking peace away from the political maelstrom.

The novel concludes with the revelation that Wei’s father could have been from any of China’s major ethnic groups—Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui, or Tibetan—underscoring the novel’s central themes of the complexity of Chinese identity and the fluidity of nationalism.

Themes

Antihero protagonist

The novel provides a satire of Chinese bureaucracy and court politics through Wei Xiaobao’s success despite, or because of, his lack of traditional virtues. His ability to thrive through flattery, deception, and guanxi27 (networking) offers a critique of how power actually functions versus how it claims to function.

The “mixing” philosophy

Wei Xiaobao’s approach to survival, dubbed “muddling” by scholars, represents a pragmatic philosophy of adaptation and opportunism.

Having grown up in a brothel, Wei views all environments through this lens, treating the imperial court as simply another form of entertainment house where similar rules of flattery and manipulation apply.

Evolution of Chinese identity

The novel marks a significant development in Jin Yong’s treatment of ethnicity and Chinese identity.

Unlike his earlier works which often portrayed conflicts between Han Chinese and “barbarians,” The Deer and the Cauldron presents a more nuanced view where Wei Xiaobao’s uncertain ethnicity becomes a metaphor for the complexity of Chinese identity itself.

Court Politics and Intrigue

Power factions

The novel portrays a complex web of competing powers in late 17th century China during the early Qing dynasty. At the center is the Manchu imperial clan led by the young Kangxi Emperor, who must navigate challenges from powerful Eight Banner nobles like Oboi who seek to dominate the court. The Han Chinese bureaucrats, though serving the Qing state, maintain their own interests and connections to anti-Qing resistance movements.

Outside the official power structure, various anti-Qing groups like the Heaven and Earth Society work to restore Han Chinese rule, while secretive religious organisations like the Mystic Dragon Order pursue their own agendas. The novel also depicts foreign powers increasingly impinging on China’s borders, including Russian expansion in the northeast and the remnant Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan.

Information warfare

Information and its control emerge as a crucial battlefield between these factions. The Zhuang Tinglong case demonstrates how even seemingly minor violations of information control through unauthorized historical writings could trigger devastating consequences.

The Sutra of Forty-two Chapters plot thread shows how information could be hidden and fragmented to protect secrets. As a spy serving multiple masters, Wei Xiaobao embodies the role of information broker moving between different power centers.

The Qing state’s use of literary inquisitions to suppress dissenting voices and control historical narrative reflects the broader theme of information warfare. Through these interweaving threads, Jin Yong portrays how control over information and its flow became as important as military might in the struggle for power during this pivotal period of Chinese history.

Cast

Main article: The Deer and the Cauldron characters

Main characters

  • Wei Xiaobao – The protagonist, a clever but unscrupulous brothel-born scamp
  • The Kangxi Emperor – Young Qing emperor who becomes Wei’s friend and patron
  • Chen Jinnan – Leader of the Tiandihui who becomes Wei’s master
  • Hong Antong – Leader of the Mystic Dragon Order
  • Oboi – The powerful regent who serves as an early antagonist

Wei Xiaobao’s wives

  • Princess Jianning – A Qing princess known for her fierce temper
  • Su Quan – Wife of Hong Antong who later marries Wei
  • Fang Yi – A martial artist from the Mu Prince’s Manor
  • Shuanger – A skilled maid given to Wei as a gift
  • Mu Jianping – Another martial artist from the Mu Prince’s Manor
  • A’ke – Daughter of Chen Yuanyuan and Li Zicheng
  • Zeng Rou – A martial artist from the Wang Wu School

Martial arts

Main article: The Deer and the Cauldron martial arts

  • Nine Yang Manual (九阳神功) — A legendary internal skill with powerful healing and energy-boosting properties, central to several plot points.
  • Invincible Armor (金刚不坏神功) — A near-impenetrable defensive skill, making the user almost immune to weapons.
  • Divine Wooden Blade Skills (神木刀法) — The signature technique of Chen Jinnan, leader of the Tiandihui.
  • Seven-Injury Fist (七伤拳) — A dangerous martial art that harms both the opponent and the practitioner.
  • Shaolin Long Fist (少林长拳 – Shàolín Chángquán) — Representative of the foundational skills taught at Shaolin, appearing in several encounters.
  • Taiyi Five Elements Divine Sword (太乙五行神剑) – An orthodox sword technique

Behind the scenes

Jin Yong spent over two years writing The Deer and the Cauldron, serialising it in Ming Pao from October 1969 to September 1972. The novel marked a significant departure from his previous works, deliberately subverting wuxia conventions through its anti-heroic protagonist and satirical tone.

In the afterword, Jin Yong wrote that his intention was to reflect societal and cultural realities rather than encourage readers to imitate Wei Xiaobao’s unprincipled behaviour. He revealed in a 2006 interview that he had considered changing the novel’s ending to give Wei Xiaobao a more morally appropriate fate, but abandoned the idea after receiving strong reader opposition.

Publication history

The novel was first serialized in Hong Kong’s Ming Pao newspaper from October 24, 1969, to September 23, 1972, spanning approximately 1.5 million characters. The novel underwent multiple revisions, with the second edition published in 1980 and the third edition in 2003, incorporating additional refinements and an appendix titled “Where Does the Soul Return.”

Editions

The novel exists in three main editions:

  1. First Edition (1969-1972): The original serialized version published in Ming Pao
  2. Second Edition (1980): Ming Ho Publications with significant changes to plot and character development
  3. Third Edition (2003): Guangzhou Publishing House (新修版), the final version with additional refinements and the “Where Does the Soul Return” appendix

Each edition reflects Jin Yong’s evolving artistic vision and his desire to perfect the narrative. The changes between editions include modifications to character motivations, plot developments, and historical details, demonstrating Jin Yong’s commitment to creating the most compelling version of his story.

Adaptations

Film

  • Tale of a Eunuch (1983) by Shaw Brothers Studio
  • Royal Tramp series by Golden Harvest and Win’s Movie Production, directed by Wong Jing

Web film

Television series

Radio

In 2000, Hong Kong’s RTHK broadcast a 100 episodes radio drama based on the novel, with Eason Chan and Roland Leung voicing Wei Xiaobao and the Kangxi Emperor respectively.

Stage productions

The Shanghai Dramatic Arts Centre (上海话剧艺术中心 – Shànghǎi Huàjù Yìshù Zhōngxīn)28 produced two notable stage adaptations. The 2009 production premiered at the Capital Theatre, directed by He Nian29 with script by Ning Caishen.30 Guo Jingfei portrayed Wei Xiaobao, with Qian Fang as Princess Jian Ning and multiple actors rotating as Kangxi.

A 2014 revival featured a new cast including Bao Beier as Wei Xiaobao, Hai Lu as Princess Jianning, and Wei Qianxiang as Kangxi, though Yang Haoyu reprised his role as Chen Jinnan from the original production.

Video games

The widespread popularity of The Deer and the Cauldron has led to numerous video game adaptations over the years. The earliest adaptation emerged in 1994 when Softworld Technology developed a DOS-based RPG that closely followed the novel’s first half, from Wei Xiaobao’s adventures in Yangzhou through to the father-son reunion at the Golden Pavilion Temple.

Softworld released a sequel in 1999, The Deer and the Cauldron II, which covered the latter half of the story from Wei’s escort mission of Princess Jian Ning to his collection of the Eight Books. This second game marked a significant improvement in graphics quality, featuring sophisticated 2D artwork and seamlessly integrated FMV combat sequences that represented the pinnacle of 1990s RPG visual design.

The Happy Box Company31 also produced their own adaptation, focusing on character relationships and political intrigue from the novel. Later, Perfect World Entertainment launched an MMORPG version that allowed players to explore the novel’s world alongside other players.

The advent of mobile gaming brought new adaptations, including Java ME games like Wei Xiaobao: Love Saint and The Laughing Tales of Wei Xiaobao. These mobile versions typically focused on specific aspects of the story while adapting to the technical limitations of early mobile devices.

The character of Wei Xiaobao also appears in crossover games like Heroes of Jin Yong Online, where players can interact with characters from various Jin Yong novels in a shared universe.

Manhua

The novel has inspired several notable manhua adaptations. The first was a colourful serialisation in Ming Pao newspaper by Au Ching running for 400 episodes in 1984.

A black and white version edited by Lin Zhengde was published in Taiwan starting in 2000, running for 8 volumes before concluding with Wei Xiaobao escorting Mu Jianping and Fang Yi from the palace.

The most extensive adaptation was a 60-volume colour series published by Jade Dynasty between 2006-2007, supervised by Wong Yuk-long32 with art direction by Andy Seto.33 This version concluded with Wei’s return to Beijing from the Prince of Pingxi’s mansion in Yunnan.

Legacy

The novel has divided critical opinion since its publication. Ni Kuang praised it as “the best novel of all time, Chinese or foreign,” while others like Wong Kwok-pun34 of the Chinese University of Hong Kong considered it inferior to Jin Yong’s earlier works.

The Deer and the Cauldron represents both the culmination and subversion of Jin Yong’s contributions to wuxia literature. Through its anti-heroic protagonist and satirical approach, the novel challenged genre conventions while commenting on power, identity, and survival in corrupt systems.

The character of Wei Xiaobao has been particularly influential, inspiring numerous discussions about his relationship to traditional Chinese cultural values and what his success says about social mobility and survival strategies in authoritarian systems.

Academic interpretation

The Deer and the Cauldron has inspired extensive scholarly analysis since its publication. Academics have interpreted the novel on multiple levels, seeing it as a sophisticated satire of power dynamics in Chinese society. Through Wei Xiaobao’s improbable rise from brothel to palace, Jin Yong exposes how personal relationships and political patronage often matter more than merit or moral character.

The novel also serves as a pointed critique of traditional heroic values celebrated in wuxia literature. By making his protagonist an unabashed opportunist who succeeds through cunning rather than martial prowess or moral virtue, Jin Yong challenges conventional narratives about heroism and righteousness. Wei’s survival and prosperity despite (or because of) his lack of traditional virtues raises uncomfortable questions about what qualities truly matter in society.

Another major scholarly focus has been the novel’s exploration of the tension between pragmatism and idealism. This plays out through Wei’s relationships with idealistic figures like Chen Jinnan who fight for grand causes, contrasted with Wei’s own practical focus on immediate survival and personal gain. The fact that Wei ultimately outlives many of the idealists suggests a complex commentary on the costs of rigid adherence to principles.

The novel’s treatment of ethnic relations in Chinese history has drawn particular attention. Through Wei’s uncertain ethnic background and his ability to move between Manchu and Han circles, Jin Yong challenges simplistic narratives about ethnic conflict during the Qing dynasty. This has contributed to broader discussions about Chinese national identity and inter-ethnic relations.

Cultural impact

The impact of The Deer and the Cauldron extends far beyond academic circles. The term “Wei Xiaobao studies” has entered popular discourse as shorthand for analysing office politics and survival strategies in hierarchical organisations. Wei’s methods of managing complex relationships and conflicting loyalties are frequently referenced in business and political contexts.

The novel has also sparked ongoing debates about the relationship between pragmatism and moral principles in Chinese society. Wei’s ability to thrive despite (or because of) his fluid moral standards has made him a controversial figure, seen by some as a negative example of moral decay and by others as a realistic portrayal of survival strategies under authoritarian systems.

Through these various interpretations and influences, The Deer and the Cauldron continues to shape discussions about power, morality, and identity in Chinese society, demonstrating its enduring relevance beyond its original historical setting.

Critical reception

The Deer and the Cauldron has received mixed critical reception since its publication. The novel has been praised for its sophisticated satire of Chinese bureaucracy and court politics, with some critics considering it Jin Yong’s most mature work. However, it has also faced criticism for its departure from traditional wuxia values and its morally ambiguous protagonist.

The novel represents both the culmination and subversion of Jin Yong’s contributions to wuxia literature. Through its anti-heroic protagonist and satirical approach, the novel challenged genre conventions while commenting on power, identity, and survival in corrupt systems.

Cultural impact

The novel has been described as “a tragic heroic epic” and “an endless elegy” that Jin Yong sang for the countless jianghu heroes he had created in his previous works. The novel’s exploration of power dynamics and the corrupting influence of authority has made it a touchstone for discussions about political systems and human nature.

The character of Wei Xiaobao has been particularly influential, inspiring numerous discussions about his relationship to traditional Chinese cultural values and what his success says about social mobility and survival strategies in authoritarian systems. The novel’s treatment of ethnic relations in Chinese history has drawn particular attention, challenging simplistic narratives about ethnic conflict during the Qing dynasty.

The novel’s central theme revolves around state power struggles, including both internal conflicts within the ruling class and anti-Qing resistance movements. Through Wei Xiaobao’s character, Jin Yong reflects the actual conditions of the entire feudal ruling group at that time. The novel portrays various social classes and groups, primarily serving the historical events in the book, but these characters and social groups are actually a microcosm of Qing dynasty society, each with their own characteristics, political views, and moral standards.

The greatest reality of that era was autocratic rule. Because there was autocracy, there was resistance. The novel also reveals the high-pressure rule that the Manchus implemented against the people to consolidate their own rule in the early Qing dynasty. Through this historical issue, the author expresses his thoughts through his novel. Jin Yong uses Wei Xiaobao, a street urchin who cannot clearly identify his ethnic identity but is recognized by Kangxi and various sectors of society, to express his own unified thinking.

Translation

The novel’s official English translation by John Minford and David Hawkes, though abridged with only 28 of the original 50 chapters, helped introduce Jin Yong’s work to English-speaking audiences. Despite its abridgment, the first volume was recognized as one of the global bestsellers in the Times Literary Supplement International Books of the Year in 1998.

The novel was published by Oxford University Press in three books (Book One, Book Two, Book Three), and as a three-volume set.

A Japanese translation was published by Tokuma Shoten in four volumes between October 1996 and January 1997, translated by Okazaki Yumi and Kojima Seiki. A paperback edition was released between April and May 2001.

See also

Footnotes

  1. 呂留良 – Lǚ Liúliáng. A Ming loyalist scholar and poet. ↩

  2. 左傳 – Zuǒ Zhuàn. An commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals covering the period from 722 to 468 BCE, attributed to Zuo Qiuming. See Wikipedia. ↩

  3. 楚莊王 – Chǔ Zhuāng Wáng. King of Chu during the Spring and Autumn period. See Wikipedia. ↩

  4. 周 – Zhōu. The third dynasty of ancient China, lasting from 1046 to 256 BCE. See Wikipedia. ↩

  5. 九鼎 – Jiǔ Dǐng. Nine bronze cauldrons in ancient China viewed as symbols of authority bestowed by Heaven. See Wikipedia. ↩

  6. 天命 – Tiān Mìng. The divine right to rule in Chinese political philosophy. See Wikipedia. ↩

  7. 问鼎中原 – Wèn Dǐng Zhōngyuán. Literally to ask about the cauldrons in the central plains. ↩

  8. 史记 – Shǐjì. The first systematic Chinese historical text, written by Sima Qian during the Han dynasty. See Wikipedia. ↩

  9. 清 – Qīng. A dynasty ruled by the Manchu people from 1644 to 1912. See Wikipedia. ↩

  10. 康熙 – Kāngxī. The fourth emperor of the Qing dynasty, reigning from 1661 to 1722. See Wikipedia. ↩

  11. 文字獄 – Wénzìyù. Official persecutions of intellectuals for their writings in ancient China. See Wikipedia. ↩

  12. 湖州 – Húzhōu. A city in Zhejiang Province. See Wikipedia. ↩

  13. 尼布楚條約 – Níbùchǔ Tiáoyuē. The first treaty between China and Russia, setting their borders. See Wikipedia. ↩

  14. 四十二章經 – Sìshí’èr Zhāng Jīng. First Indian Buddhist sutra translated into Chinese. See Wikipedia. ↩

  15. 八旗 – Bāqí. The eight administrative and military divisions of Manchu society in the Later Jin and Qing dynasties. See Wikipedia. ↩

  16. 龍脈 – Lóngmài. Literally dragon’s veins or meridians. A concept in Chinese geomancy referring to channels of energy that affect imperial authority and fortunes. ↩

  17. 鹿鼎山 – Lù Dǐng Shān. A fictional mountain named after the novel title. ↩

  18. 扬州 – Yángzhōu. A city in Jiangsu province. See Wikipedia. ↩

  19. 天台山 – Tiāntāi Shān. A mountain in Zhejiang province famous for its Buddhist temples. See Wikipedia. ↩

  20. 蘇菲亞 – Sūfēiyà. Sophia Alekseyevna, regent of Russia from 1682 to 1689. See Wikipedia. ↩

  21. 西奧圖三世 – Xī’àotú Sānshì. Tsar Feodor III of Russia. See Wikipedia. ↩

  22. 火槍營 – Huǒqiāng Yíng. The Streltsy, Russian military units used as a political force. See Wikipedia. ↩

  23. 鄭克塽 – Zhèng Kèshuǎng. Ruler of the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan. See Wikipedia. ↩

  24. 顧炎武 – Gù Yánwǔ. A prominent Ming loyalist scholar. ↩

  25. 黃宗羲 – Huáng Zōngxī. Author of “Waiting for the Dawn”, a critique of autocratic rule. ↩

  26. 大理 – Dàlǐ. A region in modern Yunnan Province, formerly the Dali Kingdom that fell to the Ming Empire. See Wikipedia. ↩

  27. 搞關係 – Gǎo guānxì. The Chinese practice of cultivating relationships for political or business advantage. See Wikipedia. ↩

  28. 上海话剧艺术中心 – Shànghǎi Huàjù Yìshù Zhōngxīn. A major theatrical company in Shanghai founded in 1995. See Wikipedia. ↩

  29. 何念 – Hé Niàn. A prominent Chinese theatre director. See Baidu Baike (Chinese). ↩

  30. 宁财神 – Níng Cáishén. A well-known Chinese screenwriter and playwright. See Wikipedia (Chinese). ↩

  31. 歡樂盒 – Huānlè Hé. ↩

  32. 黃玉郎 – Huáng Yùláng. A prolific Hong Kong manhua artist and publisher. See Wikipedia. ↩

  33. 司徒剑桥 – Sī Tú Jiànqiáo. Comic artist who specialises in martial arts-based stories. See Wikipedia. ↩

  34. 黃國彬 – Huáng Guóbīn. A scholar who criticized the novel’s departure from traditional wuxia values. See Wikipedia. ↩