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The Deer and the Cauldron
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The Deer and the Cauldron

The Deer and the Cauldron (simplified: 鹿鼎记, traditional: 鹿鼎記, pinyin: Lù Dǐng Jì, jyutping: Luk6 Ding2 Gei3) was serialised in Hong Kong’s Ming Pao newspaper from 24 October 1969 to 23 September 1972. Jin Yong wrote the novel at the height of his creative powers. The novel’s popularity grew despite—or perhaps because of—its departure from traditional wuxia conventions traditional wuxia conventions through its use of an anti-heroic protagonist and satirical elements.

The novel underwent two revisions after its initial serialisation. In 1980, Jin Yong revised the work as the Second Edition for publication by Ming Ho Publications. He later revealed in interviews that during this revision, he considered changing the ending to give Wei Xiaobao a more morally appropriate fate, having him lose his wealth and wives. However, strong reader opposition led him to maintain the original ending.

A second revision, published in early 2003 as the Third Edition, included further refinements to the text and an additional appendix titled “Where Does the Soul Return” of about 5,000 characters. In this appendix, Jin Yong shared his thoughts on life, love, and ethnicity through Wei Xiaobao’s perspective.

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Title translation

The novel’s title combines two classical Chinese metaphors for imperial power explained in the first chapter through a conversation between the poet Lü Liuliang1 and his son.

The cauldron

The cauldron (鼎 – dǐng) references a story from the The Commentary of Zuo,2 where King Zhuang of Chu,3 a vassal state of the Zhou Dynasty,4 enquired about the weight of the Nine Tripod Cauldrons.5 The cauldrons were viewed as the symbols of authority given by the Mandate of Heaven,6 and was in the possession of King of Zhou in the central plains.

This revealed his ambition to seize the Mandate of Heaven from the Zhou Dynasty. The incident became a Chinese idiom “to enquire about the cauldrons in the central plains”,7 meaning to have great ambitions.

The deer

The deer (鹿 – lù) comes from a remark by Kuai Tong[^kuaitong] documented in the Records of the Grand Historian:8 “The Qin emperor lost his deer, and all under heaven chased after it.” The deer symbolises the throne of China, with those pursuing it representing warlords vying for power.

Jin Yong adds a second layer through the conversation that while it is uncertain who would catch the deer, the deer’s fate is certain death. Here, the deer represents the common people who suffer regardless of who wins the power struggle. This symbolism refers to the novel’s broader themes about power struggle and its impact on the ordinary people.

The title

The title literally means the chronicles of the deer and the cauldron. Lü Liuliang explains that the cauldron has been used both to cook hunted deer, and as an instrument of torture. The title thus carries multiple layers of meaning about power, ambition, and the relationship between ruler and ruled.

The Duke of Mount Deer is often used, a reference to Wei Xiaobao’s title but it loses the nuances and layered meanings of the oringial title.

Plot

Background

The story is set during the early Qing dynasty9 in the reign of the Kangxi Emperor10 (1661-1722). The novel is set against the backdrop of the Zhuang Tinglong literary case[^zhuang] that occurred in the early years of the Kangxi Emperor’s reign.

During this time, the regent Oboi introduced literary inquisitions11 to control intellectual discourse. The case began when Wu Zhirong reported that Zhuang Tinglong, a merchant from Huzhou,12 had published an unauthorized history of the Ming dynasty using the taboo Ming era names. This led to widespread persecutions that set the tone for the novel’s exploration of power and legitimacy.

The story spans from 1668 to 1689, covering major historical events including:

  • The fall of regent Oboi (1668)
  • Wu Sangui’s rebellion (1673*1681)
  • The conquest of Taiwan (1683)
  • The Treaty of Nerchinsk13 with Russia (1689)

The Sutra of Forty-two Chapters

Central to the novel’s plot is the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters,14 a Buddhist text of which the Manchu rulers made eight copies. When the Qing forces conquered China, they amassed great treasure and hid it in northeast China. The map to this location was torn into pieces and hidden within these eight books, each given to one of the Eight Banners15 for safekeeping.

To ensure secrecy, the Banner commanders were told the books contained directions to the Dragon’s Meridian,16 the mystical source of Manchu rule, rather than treasure. Only the emperor knew the truth. The books become highly covted by various factions

Wei Xiaobao eventually collects all eight pieces and discovers the treasure’s location at Deer Cauldron Mountain17 in Heilongjiang. However, believing it to be the source of Qing imperial legitimacy, he chooses not to claim it.

Summary

Born to the courtesan Wei Chunhua in Yangzhou’s18 Lizhun Brothel, Wei Xiaobao grows up as a street-smart though illiterate youth. His life changes when he helps the outlaw Mao Shiba evade authorities. The grateful Mao takes Wei to Beijing, where they are intercepted by the palace eunuch Hai Dafu and his young assistant. Wei kills the assistant and impersonates him to survive in the palace.

In the palace, Wei encounters a young boy practicing martial arts who introduces himself as Little Xuan. This boy is actually the Kangxi Emperor, and the two form a close friendship through sparring matches. Wei helps Kangxi eliminate the domineering regent Oboi, who had been attempting to usurp imperial power, by orchestrating a plan using palace eunuchs to capture him.

During this time, Wei overhears a conversation revealing that the Shunzhi Emperor is still alive and has become a monk. He also discovers that the Empress Dowager is an impostor named Mao Dongzhu. To protect Kangxi, Wei reveals both secrets to him. The emperor sends Wei to locate his father at the Tiantai Mountain monastery.19

Wei’s life becomes more complicated when he encounters the Heaven and Earth Society, an anti-Qing fraternity. The society’s leader Chen Jinnan, impressed by Wei’s role in defeating Oboi, accepts him as a disciple and makes him leader of the Green Wood Lodge. Wei thus begins living a double life as both a palace insider and an anti-Qing revolutionary.

Another layer of complexity is added when Wei is captured by the Mystic Dragon Order. Through his characteristic mix of flattery and opportunism, he gains the trust of the Order’s leader Hong Antong and becomes one of its Five Emissaries. During his time with the Order, he develops a relationship with Hong’s wife Su Quan.

Wei’s political influence grows when Princess Jianning is betrothed to Wu Sangui’s son Wu Yingxiong. Acting as the imperial envoy for the marriage, Wei and the princess begin a secret affair. In Yunnan, the princess refuses to marry Wu Yingxiong and castrates him. Wei is forced to flee with her, taking Wu Yingxiong hostage.

During a mission to attack the Mystic Dragon Cult, Wei and his servant Shuanger are captured but escape north to Russia. There, he encounters Princess Sophia,20 who is struggling for power after the death of Tsar Feodor III.21 Drawing on his knowledge of Chinese opera plots about statecraft, Wei helps Sophia become regent by manipulating the Streltsy guards.22 His success leads to his appointment as a Russian count.

After successfully helping negotiate the Treaty of Nerchinsk as Russia’s envoy, Wei finds his personal life becoming increasingly complex through a series of romantic entanglements. His first wife, Princess Jianning, comes into his life during a failed political marriage arrangement with Wu Sangui’s son. Their affair leads to scandal when the princess violently rejects her intended husband. Su Quan becomes his wife after the dramatic self-destruction of the Mystic Dragon Cult, where she had been the leader’s wife.

From the Mu Prince’s Manor, Wei gains two wives: Fang Yi and Mu Jianping, both skilled martial artists whose lives become intertwined with his through a series of adventures. Shuanger, originally given to him as a reward for loyalty, proves to be one of his most devoted companions. His relationship with A’ke takes an intriguing turn when she is revealed to be the daughter of the famous courtesan Chen Yuanyuan and the rebel leader Li Zicheng. Finally, through his encounters with the Wang Wu School, Wei meets and marries Zeng Rou, adding her to his growing household.

These marriages, each with its own complex backstory of political intrigue and romantic adventure, reflect the tangled web of relationships Wei navigates throughout the novel. Despite the unorthodox nature of these relationships, each wife brings her own strengths and complications to Wei’s life, contributing to his survival and success in the dangerous world of imperial politics.

Wei’s complex web of loyalties begins to unravel when he encounters the Gui family attempting to assassinate Kangxi. While he saves the emperor’s life, the incident exposes his connection to the Heaven and Earth Society. His master Chen Jinnan is killed by Koxinga[^zhengkeshuang] during this period, further complicating his position.

The situation reaches a crisis point when several prominent Ming loyalist scholars including Gu Yanwu, Huang Zongxi, and Lü Liuliang approach Wei about leading an anti-Qing uprising. Meanwhile, Kangxi demands Wei help eliminate the Heaven and Earth Society. Facing this impossible choice between conflicting loyalties, Wei stages his own death and disappears with his family to Dali.

The novel ends with the revelation that Wei’s father could have been from any of China’s ethnic groups—Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui, or Tibetan—symbolizing the novel’s themes about the complexity of Chinese identity and nationalism.

Themes

Antihero protagonist

The novel provides a satire of Chinese bureaucracy and court politics through Wei Xiaobao’s success despite (or because of) his lack of traditional virtues. His ability to thrive through flattery, deception, and networking offers a critique of how power actually functions versus how it claims to function.

The “mixing” philosophy

Wei Xiaobao’s approach to survival, dubbed “muddling” by scholars, represents a pragmatic philosophy of adaptation and opportunism.

Having grown up in a brothel, Wei views all environments through this lens, treating the imperial court as simply another form of entertainment house where similar rules of flattery and manipulation apply.

Evolution of Chinese identity

The novel marks a significant development in Jin Yong’s treatment of ethnicity and Chinese identity.

Unlike his earlier works which often portrayed conflicts between Han Chinese and “barbarians,” The Deer and the Cauldron presents a more nuanced view where Wei Xiaobao’s uncertain ethnicity becomes a metaphor for the complexity of Chinese identity itself.

Court Politics and Intrigue

Power factions

The novel portrays a complex web of competing powers in late 17th century China during the early Qing dynasty. At the center is the Manchu imperial clan led by the young Kangxi Emperor, who must navigate challenges from powerful Eight Banner nobles like Oboi who seek to dominate the court. The Han Chinese bureaucrats, though serving the Qing state, maintain their own interests and connections to anti-Qing resistance movements.

Outside the official power structure, various anti-Qing groups like the Heaven and Earth Society work to restore Han Chinese rule, while secretive religious organizations like the Mystic Dragon Order pursue their own agendas. The novel also depicts foreign powers increasingly impinging on China’s borders, including Russian expansion in the northeast and the remnant Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan.

Information warfare

Information and its control emerge as a crucial battlefield between these factions. The Zhuang Tinglong case demonstrates how even seemingly minor violations of information control through unauthorized historical writings could trigger devastating consequences.

The Sutra of Forty-two Chapters plot thread shows how information could be hidden and fragmented to protect secrets. As a spy serving multiple masters, Wei Xiaobao embodies the role of information broker moving between different power centers.

The Qing state’s use of literary inquisitions to suppress dissenting voices and control historical narrative reflects the broader theme of information warfare. Through these interweaving threads, Jin Yong portrays how control over information and its flow became as important as military might in the struggle for power during this pivotal period of Chinese history.

Cast

See more: The Deer and the Cauldron characters

Main characters

  • Wei Xiaobao – The protagonist, a clever but unscrupulous brothel-born scamp
  • The Kangxi Emperor – Young Qing emperor who becomes Wei’s friend and patron
  • Chen Jinnan – Leader of the Tiandihui who becomes Wei’s master
  • Hong Antong – Leader of the Mystic Dragon Order
  • Oboi – The powerful regent who serves as an early antagonist

Wei Xiaobao’s wives

  • Princess Jianning – A Qing princess known for her fierce temper
  • Su Quan – Wife of Hong Antong who later marries Wei
  • Fang Yi – A martial artist from the Mu Prince’s Manor
  • Shuanger – A skilled maid given to Wei as a gift
  • Mu Jianping – Another martial artist from the Mu Prince’s Manor
  • A’ke – Daughter of Chen Yuanyuan and Li Zicheng
  • Zeng Rou – A martial artist from the Wang Wu School

Martial arts

  • Nine Yang Manual (九阳神功) – A powerful internal martial art known for healing abilities and increasing internal energy
  • Invincible Armor (金刚不坏神功) – Makes the practitioner’s body impervious to weapons
  • Divine Wooden Blade Skills (神木刀法) – Used by Chen Jinnan
  • Seven-Injury Fist (七伤拳) – A dangerous technique that harms both opponent and user
  • Taiyi Five Elements Divine Sword (太乙五行神剑) – An orthodox sword technique

Behind the scenes

Jin Yong spent over two years writing The Deer and the Cauldron, serialising it in Ming Pao from October 1969 to September 1972. The novel marked a significant departure from his previous works, deliberately subverting wuxia conventions through its anti-heroic protagonist and satirical tone.

In the afterword, Jin Yong wrote that his intention was to reflect societal and cultural realities rather than encourage readers to imitate Wei Xiaobao’s unprincipled behaviour. He revealed in a 2006 interview that he had considered changing the novel’s ending to give Wei Xiaobao a more morally appropriate fate, but abandoned the idea after receiving strong reader opposition.

Adaptations

Film

  • Tale of a Eunuch (1983) by Shaw Brothers Studio
  • Royal Tramp series by Golden Harvest and Win’s Movie Production, directed by Wong Jing

Web film

Television series

Radio

In 2000, Hong Kong’s RTHK broadcast a 100 episodes radio drama based on the novel, with Eason Chan and Roland Leung voicing Wei Xiaobao and the Kangxi Emperor respectively.

Stage productions

The Shanghai Dramatic Arts Centre (上海话剧艺术中心 – Shànghǎi Huàjù Yìshù Zhōngxīn)23 produced two notable stage adaptations. The 2009 production premiered at the Capital Theatre, directed by He Nian24 with script by Ning Caishen.25 Guo Jingfei portrayed Wei Xiaobao, with Qian Fang as Princess Jian Ning and multiple actors rotating as Kangxi.

A 2014 revival featured a new cast including Bao Beier as Wei Xiaobao, Hai Lu as Princess Jianning, and Wei Qianxiang as Kangxi, though Yang Haoyu reprised his role as Chen Jinnan from the original production.

Video games

The widespread popularity of The Deer and the Cauldron has led to numerous video game adaptations over the years. The earliest adaptation emerged in 1994 when Softworld Technology developed a DOS-based RPG that closely followed the novel’s first half, from Wei Xiaobao’s adventures in Yangzhou through to the father-son reunion at the Golden Pavilion Temple.

Softworld released a sequel in 1999, The Deer and the Cauldron II, which covered the latter half of the story from Wei’s escort mission of Princess Jian Ning to his collection of the Eight Books. This second game marked a significant improvement in graphics quality, featuring sophisticated 2D artwork and seamlessly integrated FMV combat sequences that represented the pinnacle of 1990s RPG visual design.

The Happy Box Company also produced their own adaptation, focusing on character relationships and political intrigue from the novel. Later, Perfect World Entertainment launched an MMORPG version that allowed players to explore the novel’s world alongside other players.

The advent of mobile gaming brought new adaptations, including Java ME games like Wei Xiaobao: Love Saint and The Laughing Tales of Wei Xiaobao. These mobile versions typically focused on specific aspects of the story while adapting to the technical limitations of early mobile devices.

The character of Wei Xiaobao also appears in crossover games like Heroes of Jin Yong Online, where players can interact with characters from various Jin Yong novels in a shared universe.

Manhua

The novel has inspired several notable manhua adaptations. The first was a colourful serialisation in Ming Pao newspaper by Au Ching running for 400 episodes in 1984.

A black and white version edited by Lin Zhengde was published in Taiwan starting in 2000, running for 8 volumes before concluding with Wei Xiaobao escorting Mu Jianping and Fang Yi from the palace.

The most extensive adaptation was a 60-volume colour series published by Jade Dynasty between 2006-2007, supervised by Wong Yuk-long26 with art direction by Andy Seto.27 This version concluded with Wei’s return to Beijing from the Prince of Pingxi’s mansion in Yunnan.

Legacy

The novel has divided critical opinion since its publication. Ni Kuang praised it as “the best novel of all time, Chinese or foreign,” while others like Wong Kwok-pun28 of the Chinese University of Hong Kong considered it inferior to Jin Yong’s earlier works.

The Deer and the Cauldron represents both the culmination and subversion of Jin Yong’s contributions to wuxia literature. Through its anti-heroic protagonist and satirical approach, the novel challenged genre conventions while commenting on power, identity, and survival in corrupt systems.

The character of Wei Xiaobao has been particularly influential, inspiring numerous discussions about his relationship to traditional Chinese cultural values and what his success says about social mobility and survival strategies in authoritarian systems.

Academic interpretation

The Deer and the Cauldron has inspired extensive scholarly analysis since its publication. Academics have interpreted the novel on multiple levels, seeing it as a sophisticated satire of power dynamics in Chinese society. Through Wei Xiaobao’s improbable rise from brothel to palace, Jin Yong exposes how personal relationships and political patronage often matter more than merit or moral character.

The novel also serves as a pointed critique of traditional heroic values celebrated in wuxia literature. By making his protagonist an unabashed opportunist who succeeds through cunning rather than martial prowess or moral virtue, Jin Yong challenges conventional narratives about heroism and righteousness. Wei’s survival and prosperity despite (or because of) his lack of traditional virtues raises uncomfortable questions about what qualities truly matter in society.

Another major scholarly focus has been the novel’s exploration of the tension between pragmatism and idealism. This plays out through Wei’s relationships with idealistic figures like Chen Jinnan who fight for grand causes, contrasted with Wei’s own practical focus on immediate survival and personal gain. The fact that Wei ultimately outlives many of the idealists suggests a complex commentary on the costs of rigid adherence to principles.

The novel’s treatment of ethnic relations in Chinese history has drawn particular attention. Through Wei’s uncertain ethnic background and his ability to move between Manchu and Han circles, Jin Yong challenges simplistic narratives about ethnic conflict during the Qing dynasty. This has contributed to broader discussions about Chinese national identity and inter-ethnic relations.

Cultural impact

The impact of The Deer and the Cauldron extends far beyond academic circles. The term “Wei Xiaobao studies” has entered popular discourse as shorthand for analysing office politics and survival strategies in hierarchical organisations. Wei’s methods of managing complex relationships and conflicting loyalties are frequently referenced in business and political contexts.

The novel has also sparked ongoing debates about the relationship between pragmatism and moral principles in Chinese society. Wei’s ability to thrive despite (or because of) his fluid moral standards has made him a controversial figure, seen by some as a negative example of moral decay and by others as a realistic portrayal of survival strategies under authoritarian systems.

Through these various interpretations and influences, The Deer and the Cauldron continues to shape discussions about power, morality, and identity in Chinese society, demonstrating its enduring relevance beyond its original historical setting.

Translation

The novel’s official English translation by John Minford and David Hawkes, though abridged with only 28 of the original 50 chapters, helped introduce Jin Yong’s work to English-speaking audiences. Despite its abridgment, the first volume was recognized as one of the global bestsellers in the Times Literary Supplement International Books of the Year in 1998.

The novel was published by Oxford University Press in three books (Book One, Book Two, Book Three), and as a three-volume set.

A Japanese translation was published by Tokuma Shoten in four volumes between October 1996 and January 1997, translated by Okazaki Yumi and Kojima Seiki. A paperback edition was released between April and May 2001.

See also

Footnotes

  1. 呂留良 – Lǚ Liúliáng. A Ming loyalist scholar and poet. ↩

  2. 左傳 – Zuǒ Zhuàn. An commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals covering the period from 722 to 468 BCE, attributed to Zuo Qiuming. See Wikipedia. ↩

  3. 楚莊王 – Chǔ Zhuāng Wáng. King of Chu during the Spring and Autumn period. See Wikipedia. ↩

  4. 周 – Zhōu. The third dynasty of ancient China, lasting from 1046 to 256 BC. See Wikipedia. ↩

  5. 九鼎 – Jiǔ Dǐng. Nine bronze cauldrons in ancient China viewed as symbols of authority bestowed by Heaven. See Wikipedia. ↩

  6. 天命 – Tiān Mìng. The divine right to rule in Chinese political philosophy. See Wikipedia. ↩

  7. 问鼎中原 – Wèn Dǐng Zhōngyuán. Literally to ask about the cauldrons in the central plains. ↩

  8. 史记 – Shǐjì. The first systematic Chinese historical text, written by Sima Qian during the Han dynasty. See Wikipedia. ↩

  9. 清 – Qīng. A dynasty ruled by the Manchu people from 1644 to 1912. See Wikipedia. ↩

  10. 康熙 – Kāngxī. The fourth emperor of the Qing dynasty, reigning from 1661 to 1722. See Wikipedia. ↩

  11. 文字獄 – Wénzìyù. Official persecutions of intellectuals for their writings in ancient China. See Wikipedia. ↩

  12. 湖州 – Húzhōu. A city in Zhejiang Province. See Wikipedia. ↩

  13. 尼布楚條約 – Níbùchǔ Tiáoyuē. The first treaty between China and Russia, setting their borders. See Wikipedia. ↩

  14. 四十二章經 – Sìshí’èr Zhāng Jīng. First Indian Buddhist sutra translated into Chinese. See Wikipedia. ↩

  15. 八旗 – Bāqí. The eight administrative and military divisions of Manchu society in the Later Jin and Qing dynasties. See Wikipedia. ↩

  16. 龍脈 – Lóngmài. Literally dragon’s veins or meridians. A concept in Chinese geomancy referring to channels of energy that affect imperial authority and fortunes. ↩

  17. 鹿鼎山 – Lù Dǐng Shān. A fictional mountain named after the novel title. ↩

  18. 扬州 – Yángzhōu. A city in Jiangsu province. See Wikipedia. ↩

  19. 天台山 – Tiāntāi Shān. A mountain in Zhejiang province famous for its Buddhist temples. See Wikipedia. ↩

  20. 蘇菲亞 – Sūfēiyà. Sophia Alekseyevna, regent of Russia from 1682 to 1689. See Wikipedia. ↩

  21. 西奧圖三世 – Xī’àotú Sānshì. Tsar Feodor III of Russia. See Wikipedia. ↩

  22. 火槍營 – Huǒqiāng Yíng. The Streltsy, Russian military units used as a political force. See Wikipedia. ↩

  23. 上海话剧艺术中心 – Shànghǎi Huàjù Yìshù Zhōngxīn. A major theatrical company in Shanghai founded in 1995. See Wikipedia. ↩

  24. 何念 – Hé Niàn. A prominent Chinese theatre director. See Baidu Baike (Chinese). ↩

  25. 宁财神 – Níng Cáishén. A well-known Chinese screenwriter and playwright. See Wikipedia (Chinese). ↩

  26. 黃玉郎 – Huáng Yùláng. A prolific Hong Kong manhua artist and publisher. See Wikipedia. ↩

  27. 司徒剑桥 – Sī Tú Jiànqiáo. Comic artist who specialises in martial arts-based stories. See Wikipedia. ↩

  28. 黃國彬 – Huáng Guóbīn. A scholar who criticized the novel’s departure from traditional wuxia values. See Wikipedia. ↩